16384/2048.
Following recent discussions on the -arch mailing list, involving dillon
and mckusick, this change parallels the one made over a decade ago when
the default was bumped up from 4096/512.
This should provide significant performance improvements for most
folks, less significant performance losses for a few folks and
wasted space lost to large fragments for many folks.
For discussion, please see the following thread in the -arch archive:
Subject: Using a larger block size on large filesystems
The discussion ceases to be relevant when the issue of partitioning
schemes is raised.
were only of benefit to large filesystems, which recent research
suggests is not the case, and which the original author of the text
no longer endorses.
size ratio other than 8:1. Currently, we only recommend an 8:1
ratio, because the impact of others ratios has not been adequately
investigated.
Also, do not recommend the use of the -c option in the example, since
newfs now automatically calculates the best cyl:cylgrp ratio.
This change was discussed with the author of rev 1.29.
His description of the problem and solution follow. My own tests show
speedups on typical filesystem intensive workloads of 5% to 12% which
is very impressive considering the small amount of code change involved.
------
One day I noticed that some file operations run much faster on
small file systems then on big ones. I've looked at the ffs
algorithms, thought about them, and redesigned the dirpref algorithm.
First I want to describe the results of my tests. These results are old
and I have improved the algorithm after these tests were done. Nevertheless
they show how big the perfomance speedup may be. I have done two file/directory
intensive tests on a two OpenBSD systems with old and new dirpref algorithm.
The first test is "tar -xzf ports.tar.gz", the second is "rm -rf ports".
The ports.tar.gz file is the ports collection from the OpenBSD 2.8 release.
It contains 6596 directories and 13868 files. The test systems are:
1. Celeron-450, 128Mb, two IDE drives, the system at wd0, file system for
test is at wd1. Size of test file system is 8 Gb, number of cg=991,
size of cg is 8m, block size = 8k, fragment size = 1k OpenBSD-current
from Dec 2000 with BUFCACHEPERCENT=35
2. PIII-600, 128Mb, two IBM DTLA-307045 IDE drives at i815e, the system
at wd0, file system for test is at wd1. Size of test file system is 40 Gb,
number of cg=5324, size of cg is 8m, block size = 8k, fragment size = 1k
OpenBSD-current from Dec 2000 with BUFCACHEPERCENT=50
You can get more info about the test systems and methods at:
http://www.ptci.ru/gluk/dirpref/old/dirpref.html
Test Results
tar -xzf ports.tar.gz rm -rf ports
mode old dirpref new dirpref speedup old dirprefnew dirpref speedup
First system
normal 667 472 1.41 477 331 1.44
async 285 144 1.98 130 14 9.29
sync 768 616 1.25 477 334 1.43
softdep 413 252 1.64 241 38 6.34
Second system
normal 329 81 4.06 263.5 93.5 2.81
async 302 25.7 11.75 112 2.26 49.56
sync 281 57.0 4.93 263 90.5 2.9
softdep 341 40.6 8.4 284 4.76 59.66
"old dirpref" and "new dirpref" columns give a test time in seconds.
speedup - speed increasement in times, ie. old dirpref / new dirpref.
------
Algorithm description
The old dirpref algorithm is described in comments:
/*
* Find a cylinder to place a directory.
*
* The policy implemented by this algorithm is to select from
* among those cylinder groups with above the average number of
* free inodes, the one with the smallest number of directories.
*/
A new directory is allocated in a different cylinder groups than its
parent directory resulting in a directory tree that is spreaded across
all the cylinder groups. This spreading out results in a non-optimal
access to the directories and files. When we have a small filesystem
it is not a problem but when the filesystem is big then perfomance
degradation becomes very apparent.
What I mean by a big file system ?
1. A big filesystem is a filesystem which occupy 20-30 or more percent
of total drive space, i.e. first and last cylinder are physically
located relatively far from each other.
2. It has a relatively large number of cylinder groups, for example
more cylinder groups than 50% of the buffers in the buffer cache.
The first results in long access times, while the second results in
many buffers being used by metadata operations. Such operations use
cylinder group blocks and on-disk inode blocks. The cylinder group
block (fs->fs_cblkno) contains struct cg, inode and block bit maps.
It is 2k in size for the default filesystem parameters. If new and
parent directories are located in different cylinder groups then the
system performs more input/output operations and uses more buffers.
On filesystems with many cylinder groups, lots of cache buffers are
used for metadata operations.
My solution for this problem is very simple. I allocate many directories
in one cylinder group. I also do some things, so that the new allocation
method does not cause excessive fragmentation and all directory inodes
will not be located at a location far from its file's inodes and data.
The algorithm is:
/*
* Find a cylinder group to place a directory.
*
* The policy implemented by this algorithm is to allocate a
* directory inode in the same cylinder group as its parent
* directory, but also to reserve space for its files inodes
* and data. Restrict the number of directories which may be
* allocated one after another in the same cylinder group
* without intervening allocation of files.
*
* If we allocate a first level directory then force allocation
* in another cylinder group.
*/
My early versions of dirpref give me a good results for a wide range of
file operations and different filesystem capacities except one case:
those applications that create their entire directory structure first
and only later fill this structure with files.
My solution for such and similar cases is to limit a number of
directories which may be created one after another in the same cylinder
group without intervening file creations. For this purpose, I allocate
an array of counters at mount time. This array is linked to the superblock
fs->fs_contigdirs[cg]. Each time a directory is created the counter
increases and each time a file is created the counter decreases. A 60Gb
filesystem with 8mb/cg requires 10kb of memory for the counters array.
The maxcontigdirs is a maximum number of directories which may be created
without an intervening file creation. I found in my tests that the best
performance occurs when I restrict the number of directories in one cylinder
group such that all its files may be located in the same cylinder group.
There may be some deterioration in performance if all the file inodes
are in the same cylinder group as its containing directory, but their
data partially resides in a different cylinder group. The maxcontigdirs
value is calculated to try to prevent this condition. Since there is
no way to know how many files and directories will be allocated later
I added two optimization parameters in superblock/tunefs. They are:
int32_t fs_avgfilesize; /* expected average file size */
int32_t fs_avgfpdir; /* expected # of files per directory */
These parameters have reasonable defaults but may be tweeked for special
uses of a filesystem. They are only necessary in rare cases like better
tuning a filesystem being used to store a squid cache.
I have been using this algorithm for about 3 months. I have done
a lot of testing on filesystems with different capacities, average
filesize, average number of files per directory, and so on. I think
this algorithm has no negative impact on filesystem perfomance. It
works better than the default one in all cases. The new dirpref
will greatly improve untarring/removing/coping of big directories,
decrease load on cvs servers and much more. The new dirpref doesn't
speedup a compilation process, but also doesn't slow it down.
Obtained from: Grigoriy Orlov <gluk@ptci.ru>
[I first added this functionality, and thought to check prior art. Seeing
OpenBSD had already done this, I changed my addition to reduce the diffs
between the two and went with their option letter.]
Obtained from: OpenBSD
So bump the default from `16' to `22', which is the largest value allowed
with the current default block size. This change increases the the
group size from 32MB/g to 44MB/g on a 4GB SCSI disk.
in-core pointers to summary information. An array in this region
(fs_csp) could overflow on filesystems with a very large number of
cylinder groups (~16000 on i386 with 8k blocks). When this happens,
other fields in the superblock get corrupted, and fsck refuses to
check the filesystem.
Solve this problem by replacing the fs_csp array in 'struct fs'
with a single pointer, and add padding to keep the length of the
128-byte region fixed. Update the kernel and userland utilities
to use just this single pointer.
With this change, the kernel no longer makes use of the superblock
fields 'fs_csshift' and 'fs_csmask'. Add a comment to newfs/mkfs.c
to indicate that these fields must be calculated for compatibility
with older kernels.
Reviewed by: mckusick
touch ups. The cache needs to be flushed against block
reads, and a final flush at process termination to force the
backup superblocks to disk.
I believe this will allow 'make release' to complete.
Submitted by: Tor.Egge@fast.no
for large scsi disks with WCE = 0. This yields around a 7 times speedup
on elapsed newfs time on test disks here. 64k clusters seems to be the
sweet spot for scsi disks using our present drivers.
