704 lines
26 KiB
Plaintext
704 lines
26 KiB
Plaintext
=head1 NAME
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perlref - Perl references and nested data structures
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=head1 NOTE
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This is complete documentation about all aspects of references.
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For a shorter, tutorial introduction to just the essential features,
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see L<perlreftut>.
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=head1 DESCRIPTION
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Before release 5 of Perl it was difficult to represent complex data
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structures, because all references had to be symbolic--and even then
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it was difficult to refer to a variable instead of a symbol table entry.
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Perl now not only makes it easier to use symbolic references to variables,
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but also lets you have "hard" references to any piece of data or code.
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Any scalar may hold a hard reference. Because arrays and hashes contain
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scalars, you can now easily build arrays of arrays, arrays of hashes,
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hashes of arrays, arrays of hashes of functions, and so on.
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Hard references are smart--they keep track of reference counts for you,
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automatically freeing the thing referred to when its reference count goes
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to zero. (Reference counts for values in self-referential or
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cyclic data structures may not go to zero without a little help; see
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L<perlobj/"Two-Phased Garbage Collection"> for a detailed explanation.)
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If that thing happens to be an object, the object is destructed. See
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L<perlobj> for more about objects. (In a sense, everything in Perl is an
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object, but we usually reserve the word for references to objects that
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have been officially "blessed" into a class package.)
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Symbolic references are names of variables or other objects, just as a
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symbolic link in a Unix filesystem contains merely the name of a file.
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The C<*glob> notation is something of a of symbolic reference. (Symbolic
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references are sometimes called "soft references", but please don't call
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them that; references are confusing enough without useless synonyms.)
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In contrast, hard references are more like hard links in a Unix file
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system: They are used to access an underlying object without concern for
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what its (other) name is. When the word "reference" is used without an
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adjective, as in the following paragraph, it is usually talking about a
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hard reference.
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References are easy to use in Perl. There is just one overriding
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principle: Perl does no implicit referencing or dereferencing. When a
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scalar is holding a reference, it always behaves as a simple scalar. It
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doesn't magically start being an array or hash or subroutine; you have to
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tell it explicitly to do so, by dereferencing it.
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=head2 Making References
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References can be created in several ways.
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=over 4
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=item 1.
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By using the backslash operator on a variable, subroutine, or value.
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(This works much like the & (address-of) operator in C.)
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This typically creates I<another> reference to a variable, because
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there's already a reference to the variable in the symbol table. But
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the symbol table reference might go away, and you'll still have the
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reference that the backslash returned. Here are some examples:
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$scalarref = \$foo;
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$arrayref = \@ARGV;
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$hashref = \%ENV;
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$coderef = \&handler;
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$globref = \*foo;
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It isn't possible to create a true reference to an IO handle (filehandle
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or dirhandle) using the backslash operator. The most you can get is a
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reference to a typeglob, which is actually a complete symbol table entry.
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But see the explanation of the C<*foo{THING}> syntax below. However,
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you can still use type globs and globrefs as though they were IO handles.
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=item 2.
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A reference to an anonymous array can be created using square
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brackets:
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$arrayref = [1, 2, ['a', 'b', 'c']];
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Here we've created a reference to an anonymous array of three elements
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whose final element is itself a reference to another anonymous array of three
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elements. (The multidimensional syntax described later can be used to
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access this. For example, after the above, C<< $arrayref->[2][1] >> would have
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the value "b".)
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Taking a reference to an enumerated list is not the same
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as using square brackets--instead it's the same as creating
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a list of references!
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@list = (\$a, \@b, \%c);
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@list = \($a, @b, %c); # same thing!
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As a special case, C<\(@foo)> returns a list of references to the contents
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of C<@foo>, not a reference to C<@foo> itself. Likewise for C<%foo>,
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except that the key references are to copies (since the keys are just
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strings rather than full-fledged scalars).
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=item 3.
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A reference to an anonymous hash can be created using curly
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brackets:
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$hashref = {
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'Adam' => 'Eve',
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'Clyde' => 'Bonnie',
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};
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Anonymous hash and array composers like these can be intermixed freely to
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produce as complicated a structure as you want. The multidimensional
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syntax described below works for these too. The values above are
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literals, but variables and expressions would work just as well, because
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assignment operators in Perl (even within local() or my()) are executable
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statements, not compile-time declarations.
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Because curly brackets (braces) are used for several other things
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including BLOCKs, you may occasionally have to disambiguate braces at the
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beginning of a statement by putting a C<+> or a C<return> in front so
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that Perl realizes the opening brace isn't starting a BLOCK. The economy and
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mnemonic value of using curlies is deemed worth this occasional extra
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hassle.
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For example, if you wanted a function to make a new hash and return a
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reference to it, you have these options:
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sub hashem { { @_ } } # silently wrong
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sub hashem { +{ @_ } } # ok
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sub hashem { return { @_ } } # ok
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On the other hand, if you want the other meaning, you can do this:
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sub showem { { @_ } } # ambiguous (currently ok, but may change)
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sub showem { {; @_ } } # ok
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sub showem { { return @_ } } # ok
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The leading C<+{> and C<{;> always serve to disambiguate
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the expression to mean either the HASH reference, or the BLOCK.
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=item 4.
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A reference to an anonymous subroutine can be created by using
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C<sub> without a subname:
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$coderef = sub { print "Boink!\n" };
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Note the semicolon. Except for the code
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inside not being immediately executed, a C<sub {}> is not so much a
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declaration as it is an operator, like C<do{}> or C<eval{}>. (However, no
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matter how many times you execute that particular line (unless you're in an
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C<eval("...")>), $coderef will still have a reference to the I<same>
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anonymous subroutine.)
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Anonymous subroutines act as closures with respect to my() variables,
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that is, variables lexically visible within the current scope. Closure
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is a notion out of the Lisp world that says if you define an anonymous
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function in a particular lexical context, it pretends to run in that
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context even when it's called outside the context.
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In human terms, it's a funny way of passing arguments to a subroutine when
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you define it as well as when you call it. It's useful for setting up
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little bits of code to run later, such as callbacks. You can even
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do object-oriented stuff with it, though Perl already provides a different
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mechanism to do that--see L<perlobj>.
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You might also think of closure as a way to write a subroutine
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template without using eval(). Here's a small example of how
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closures work:
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sub newprint {
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my $x = shift;
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return sub { my $y = shift; print "$x, $y!\n"; };
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}
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$h = newprint("Howdy");
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$g = newprint("Greetings");
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# Time passes...
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&$h("world");
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&$g("earthlings");
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This prints
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Howdy, world!
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Greetings, earthlings!
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Note particularly that $x continues to refer to the value passed
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into newprint() I<despite> "my $x" having gone out of scope by the
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time the anonymous subroutine runs. That's what a closure is all
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about.
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This applies only to lexical variables, by the way. Dynamic variables
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continue to work as they have always worked. Closure is not something
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that most Perl programmers need trouble themselves about to begin with.
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=item 5.
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References are often returned by special subroutines called constructors.
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Perl objects are just references to a special type of object that happens to know
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which package it's associated with. Constructors are just special
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subroutines that know how to create that association. They do so by
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starting with an ordinary reference, and it remains an ordinary reference
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even while it's also being an object. Constructors are often
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named new() and called indirectly:
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$objref = new Doggie (Tail => 'short', Ears => 'long');
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But don't have to be:
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$objref = Doggie->new(Tail => 'short', Ears => 'long');
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use Term::Cap;
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$terminal = Term::Cap->Tgetent( { OSPEED => 9600 });
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use Tk;
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$main = MainWindow->new();
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$menubar = $main->Frame(-relief => "raised",
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-borderwidth => 2)
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=item 6.
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References of the appropriate type can spring into existence if you
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dereference them in a context that assumes they exist. Because we haven't
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talked about dereferencing yet, we can't show you any examples yet.
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=item 7.
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A reference can be created by using a special syntax, lovingly known as
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the *foo{THING} syntax. *foo{THING} returns a reference to the THING
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slot in *foo (which is the symbol table entry which holds everything
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known as foo).
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$scalarref = *foo{SCALAR};
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$arrayref = *ARGV{ARRAY};
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$hashref = *ENV{HASH};
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$coderef = *handler{CODE};
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$ioref = *STDIN{IO};
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$globref = *foo{GLOB};
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All of these are self-explanatory except for C<*foo{IO}>. It returns
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the IO handle, used for file handles (L<perlfunc/open>), sockets
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(L<perlfunc/socket> and L<perlfunc/socketpair>), and directory
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handles (L<perlfunc/opendir>). For compatibility with previous
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versions of Perl, C<*foo{FILEHANDLE}> is a synonym for C<*foo{IO}>.
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C<*foo{THING}> returns undef if that particular THING hasn't been used yet,
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except in the case of scalars. C<*foo{SCALAR}> returns a reference to an
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anonymous scalar if $foo hasn't been used yet. This might change in a
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future release.
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C<*foo{IO}> is an alternative to the C<*HANDLE> mechanism given in
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L<perldata/"Typeglobs and Filehandles"> for passing filehandles
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into or out of subroutines, or storing into larger data structures.
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Its disadvantage is that it won't create a new filehandle for you.
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Its advantage is that you have less risk of clobbering more than
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you want to with a typeglob assignment. (It still conflates file
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and directory handles, though.) However, if you assign the incoming
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value to a scalar instead of a typeglob as we do in the examples
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below, there's no risk of that happening.
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splutter(*STDOUT); # pass the whole glob
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splutter(*STDOUT{IO}); # pass both file and dir handles
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sub splutter {
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my $fh = shift;
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print $fh "her um well a hmmm\n";
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}
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$rec = get_rec(*STDIN); # pass the whole glob
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$rec = get_rec(*STDIN{IO}); # pass both file and dir handles
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sub get_rec {
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my $fh = shift;
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return scalar <$fh>;
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}
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=back
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=head2 Using References
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That's it for creating references. By now you're probably dying to
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know how to use references to get back to your long-lost data. There
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are several basic methods.
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=over 4
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=item 1.
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Anywhere you'd put an identifier (or chain of identifiers) as part
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of a variable or subroutine name, you can replace the identifier with
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a simple scalar variable containing a reference of the correct type:
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$bar = $$scalarref;
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push(@$arrayref, $filename);
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$$arrayref[0] = "January";
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$$hashref{"KEY"} = "VALUE";
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&$coderef(1,2,3);
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print $globref "output\n";
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It's important to understand that we are specifically I<not> dereferencing
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C<$arrayref[0]> or C<$hashref{"KEY"}> there. The dereference of the
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scalar variable happens I<before> it does any key lookups. Anything more
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complicated than a simple scalar variable must use methods 2 or 3 below.
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However, a "simple scalar" includes an identifier that itself uses method
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1 recursively. Therefore, the following prints "howdy".
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$refrefref = \\\"howdy";
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print $$$$refrefref;
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=item 2.
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Anywhere you'd put an identifier (or chain of identifiers) as part of a
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variable or subroutine name, you can replace the identifier with a
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BLOCK returning a reference of the correct type. In other words, the
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previous examples could be written like this:
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$bar = ${$scalarref};
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push(@{$arrayref}, $filename);
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${$arrayref}[0] = "January";
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${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE";
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&{$coderef}(1,2,3);
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$globref->print("output\n"); # iff IO::Handle is loaded
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Admittedly, it's a little silly to use the curlies in this case, but
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the BLOCK can contain any arbitrary expression, in particular,
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subscripted expressions:
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&{ $dispatch{$index} }(1,2,3); # call correct routine
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Because of being able to omit the curlies for the simple case of C<$$x>,
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people often make the mistake of viewing the dereferencing symbols as
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proper operators, and wonder about their precedence. If they were,
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though, you could use parentheses instead of braces. That's not the case.
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Consider the difference below; case 0 is a short-hand version of case 1,
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I<not> case 2:
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$$hashref{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 0
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${$hashref}{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # CASE 1
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${$hashref{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 2
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${$hashref->{"KEY"}} = "VALUE"; # CASE 3
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Case 2 is also deceptive in that you're accessing a variable
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called %hashref, not dereferencing through $hashref to the hash
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it's presumably referencing. That would be case 3.
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=item 3.
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Subroutine calls and lookups of individual array elements arise often
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enough that it gets cumbersome to use method 2. As a form of
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syntactic sugar, the examples for method 2 may be written:
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$arrayref->[0] = "January"; # Array element
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$hashref->{"KEY"} = "VALUE"; # Hash element
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$coderef->(1,2,3); # Subroutine call
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The left side of the arrow can be any expression returning a reference,
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including a previous dereference. Note that C<$array[$x]> is I<not> the
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same thing as C<< $array->[$x] >> here:
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$array[$x]->{"foo"}->[0] = "January";
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This is one of the cases we mentioned earlier in which references could
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spring into existence when in an lvalue context. Before this
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statement, C<$array[$x]> may have been undefined. If so, it's
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automatically defined with a hash reference so that we can look up
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C<{"foo"}> in it. Likewise C<< $array[$x]->{"foo"} >> will automatically get
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defined with an array reference so that we can look up C<[0]> in it.
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This process is called I<autovivification>.
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One more thing here. The arrow is optional I<between> brackets
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subscripts, so you can shrink the above down to
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$array[$x]{"foo"}[0] = "January";
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Which, in the degenerate case of using only ordinary arrays, gives you
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multidimensional arrays just like C's:
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$score[$x][$y][$z] += 42;
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Well, okay, not entirely like C's arrays, actually. C doesn't know how
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to grow its arrays on demand. Perl does.
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=item 4.
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If a reference happens to be a reference to an object, then there are
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probably methods to access the things referred to, and you should probably
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stick to those methods unless you're in the class package that defines the
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object's methods. In other words, be nice, and don't violate the object's
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encapsulation without a very good reason. Perl does not enforce
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encapsulation. We are not totalitarians here. We do expect some basic
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civility though.
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=back
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Using a string or number as a reference produces a symbolic reference,
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as explained above. Using a reference as a number produces an
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integer representing its storage location in memory. The only
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useful thing to be done with this is to compare two references
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numerically to see whether they refer to the same location.
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if ($ref1 == $ref2) { # cheap numeric compare of references
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print "refs 1 and 2 refer to the same thing\n";
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}
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Using a reference as a string produces both its referent's type,
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including any package blessing as described in L<perlobj>, as well
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as the numeric address expressed in hex. The ref() operator returns
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just the type of thing the reference is pointing to, without the
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address. See L<perlfunc/ref> for details and examples of its use.
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The bless() operator may be used to associate the object a reference
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points to with a package functioning as an object class. See L<perlobj>.
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A typeglob may be dereferenced the same way a reference can, because
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the dereference syntax always indicates the type of reference desired.
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So C<${*foo}> and C<${\$foo}> both indicate the same scalar variable.
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Here's a trick for interpolating a subroutine call into a string:
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print "My sub returned @{[mysub(1,2,3)]} that time.\n";
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The way it works is that when the C<@{...}> is seen in the double-quoted
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string, it's evaluated as a block. The block creates a reference to an
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anonymous array containing the results of the call to C<mysub(1,2,3)>. So
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the whole block returns a reference to an array, which is then
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dereferenced by C<@{...}> and stuck into the double-quoted string. This
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chicanery is also useful for arbitrary expressions:
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print "That yields @{[$n + 5]} widgets\n";
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=head2 Symbolic references
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We said that references spring into existence as necessary if they are
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undefined, but we didn't say what happens if a value used as a
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reference is already defined, but I<isn't> a hard reference. If you
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use it as a reference, it'll be treated as a symbolic
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reference. That is, the value of the scalar is taken to be the I<name>
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of a variable, rather than a direct link to a (possibly) anonymous
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value.
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People frequently expect it to work like this. So it does.
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$name = "foo";
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$$name = 1; # Sets $foo
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${$name} = 2; # Sets $foo
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${$name x 2} = 3; # Sets $foofoo
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$name->[0] = 4; # Sets $foo[0]
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@$name = (); # Clears @foo
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&$name(); # Calls &foo() (as in Perl 4)
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$pack = "THAT";
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${"${pack}::$name"} = 5; # Sets $THAT::foo without eval
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This is powerful, and slightly dangerous, in that it's possible
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to intend (with the utmost sincerity) to use a hard reference, and
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accidentally use a symbolic reference instead. To protect against
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that, you can say
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use strict 'refs';
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and then only hard references will be allowed for the rest of the enclosing
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block. An inner block may countermand that with
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no strict 'refs';
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Only package variables (globals, even if localized) are visible to
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symbolic references. Lexical variables (declared with my()) aren't in
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a symbol table, and thus are invisible to this mechanism. For example:
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local $value = 10;
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$ref = "value";
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{
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my $value = 20;
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print $$ref;
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}
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This will still print 10, not 20. Remember that local() affects package
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variables, which are all "global" to the package.
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=head2 Not-so-symbolic references
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A new feature contributing to readability in perl version 5.001 is that the
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brackets around a symbolic reference behave more like quotes, just as they
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always have within a string. That is,
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|
$push = "pop on ";
|
|
print "${push}over";
|
|
|
|
has always meant to print "pop on over", even though push is
|
|
a reserved word. This has been generalized to work the same outside
|
|
of quotes, so that
|
|
|
|
print ${push} . "over";
|
|
|
|
and even
|
|
|
|
print ${ push } . "over";
|
|
|
|
will have the same effect. (This would have been a syntax error in
|
|
Perl 5.000, though Perl 4 allowed it in the spaceless form.) This
|
|
construct is I<not> considered to be a symbolic reference when you're
|
|
using strict refs:
|
|
|
|
use strict 'refs';
|
|
${ bareword }; # Okay, means $bareword.
|
|
${ "bareword" }; # Error, symbolic reference.
|
|
|
|
Similarly, because of all the subscripting that is done using single
|
|
words, we've applied the same rule to any bareword that is used for
|
|
subscripting a hash. So now, instead of writing
|
|
|
|
$array{ "aaa" }{ "bbb" }{ "ccc" }
|
|
|
|
you can write just
|
|
|
|
$array{ aaa }{ bbb }{ ccc }
|
|
|
|
and not worry about whether the subscripts are reserved words. In the
|
|
rare event that you do wish to do something like
|
|
|
|
$array{ shift }
|
|
|
|
you can force interpretation as a reserved word by adding anything that
|
|
makes it more than a bareword:
|
|
|
|
$array{ shift() }
|
|
$array{ +shift }
|
|
$array{ shift @_ }
|
|
|
|
The C<use warnings> pragma or the B<-w> switch will warn you if it
|
|
interprets a reserved word as a string.
|
|
But it will no longer warn you about using lowercase words, because the
|
|
string is effectively quoted.
|
|
|
|
=head2 Pseudo-hashes: Using an array as a hash
|
|
|
|
B<WARNING>: This section describes an experimental feature. Details may
|
|
change without notice in future versions.
|
|
|
|
Beginning with release 5.005 of Perl, you may use an array reference
|
|
in some contexts that would normally require a hash reference. This
|
|
allows you to access array elements using symbolic names, as if they
|
|
were fields in a structure.
|
|
|
|
For this to work, the array must contain extra information. The first
|
|
element of the array has to be a hash reference that maps field names
|
|
to array indices. Here is an example:
|
|
|
|
$struct = [{foo => 1, bar => 2}, "FOO", "BAR"];
|
|
|
|
$struct->{foo}; # same as $struct->[1], i.e. "FOO"
|
|
$struct->{bar}; # same as $struct->[2], i.e. "BAR"
|
|
|
|
keys %$struct; # will return ("foo", "bar") in some order
|
|
values %$struct; # will return ("FOO", "BAR") in same some order
|
|
|
|
while (my($k,$v) = each %$struct) {
|
|
print "$k => $v\n";
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
Perl will raise an exception if you try to access nonexistent fields.
|
|
To avoid inconsistencies, always use the fields::phash() function
|
|
provided by the C<fields> pragma.
|
|
|
|
use fields;
|
|
$pseudohash = fields::phash(foo => "FOO", bar => "BAR");
|
|
|
|
For better performance, Perl can also do the translation from field
|
|
names to array indices at compile time for typed object references.
|
|
See L<fields>.
|
|
|
|
There are two ways to check for the existence of a key in a
|
|
pseudo-hash. The first is to use exists(). This checks to see if the
|
|
given field has ever been set. It acts this way to match the behavior
|
|
of a regular hash. For instance:
|
|
|
|
use fields;
|
|
$phash = fields::phash([qw(foo bar pants)], ['FOO']);
|
|
$phash->{pants} = undef;
|
|
|
|
print exists $phash->{foo}; # true, 'foo' was set in the declaration
|
|
print exists $phash->{bar}; # false, 'bar' has not been used.
|
|
print exists $phash->{pants}; # true, your 'pants' have been touched
|
|
|
|
The second is to use exists() on the hash reference sitting in the
|
|
first array element. This checks to see if the given key is a valid
|
|
field in the pseudo-hash.
|
|
|
|
print exists $phash->[0]{bar}; # true, 'bar' is a valid field
|
|
print exists $phash->[0]{shoes};# false, 'shoes' can't be used
|
|
|
|
delete() on a pseudo-hash element only deletes the value corresponding
|
|
to the key, not the key itself. To delete the key, you'll have to
|
|
explicitly delete it from the first hash element.
|
|
|
|
print delete $phash->{foo}; # prints $phash->[1], "FOO"
|
|
print exists $phash->{foo}; # false
|
|
print exists $phash->[0]{foo}; # true, key still exists
|
|
print delete $phash->[0]{foo}; # now key is gone
|
|
print $phash->{foo}; # runtime exception
|
|
|
|
=head2 Function Templates
|
|
|
|
As explained above, a closure is an anonymous function with access to the
|
|
lexical variables visible when that function was compiled. It retains
|
|
access to those variables even though it doesn't get run until later,
|
|
such as in a signal handler or a Tk callback.
|
|
|
|
Using a closure as a function template allows us to generate many functions
|
|
that act similarly. Suppose you wanted functions named after the colors
|
|
that generated HTML font changes for the various colors:
|
|
|
|
print "Be ", red("careful"), "with that ", green("light");
|
|
|
|
The red() and green() functions would be similar. To create these,
|
|
we'll assign a closure to a typeglob of the name of the function we're
|
|
trying to build.
|
|
|
|
@colors = qw(red blue green yellow orange purple violet);
|
|
for my $name (@colors) {
|
|
no strict 'refs'; # allow symbol table manipulation
|
|
*$name = *{uc $name} = sub { "<FONT COLOR='$name'>@_</FONT>" };
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
Now all those different functions appear to exist independently. You can
|
|
call red(), RED(), blue(), BLUE(), green(), etc. This technique saves on
|
|
both compile time and memory use, and is less error-prone as well, since
|
|
syntax checks happen at compile time. It's critical that any variables in
|
|
the anonymous subroutine be lexicals in order to create a proper closure.
|
|
That's the reasons for the C<my> on the loop iteration variable.
|
|
|
|
This is one of the only places where giving a prototype to a closure makes
|
|
much sense. If you wanted to impose scalar context on the arguments of
|
|
these functions (probably not a wise idea for this particular example),
|
|
you could have written it this way instead:
|
|
|
|
*$name = sub ($) { "<FONT COLOR='$name'>$_[0]</FONT>" };
|
|
|
|
However, since prototype checking happens at compile time, the assignment
|
|
above happens too late to be of much use. You could address this by
|
|
putting the whole loop of assignments within a BEGIN block, forcing it
|
|
to occur during compilation.
|
|
|
|
Access to lexicals that change over type--like those in the C<for> loop
|
|
above--only works with closures, not general subroutines. In the general
|
|
case, then, named subroutines do not nest properly, although anonymous
|
|
ones do. If you are accustomed to using nested subroutines in other
|
|
programming languages with their own private variables, you'll have to
|
|
work at it a bit in Perl. The intuitive coding of this type of thing
|
|
incurs mysterious warnings about ``will not stay shared''. For example,
|
|
this won't work:
|
|
|
|
sub outer {
|
|
my $x = $_[0] + 35;
|
|
sub inner { return $x * 19 } # WRONG
|
|
return $x + inner();
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
A work-around is the following:
|
|
|
|
sub outer {
|
|
my $x = $_[0] + 35;
|
|
local *inner = sub { return $x * 19 };
|
|
return $x + inner();
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
Now inner() can only be called from within outer(), because of the
|
|
temporary assignments of the closure (anonymous subroutine). But when
|
|
it does, it has normal access to the lexical variable $x from the scope
|
|
of outer().
|
|
|
|
This has the interesting effect of creating a function local to another
|
|
function, something not normally supported in Perl.
|
|
|
|
=head1 WARNING
|
|
|
|
You may not (usefully) use a reference as the key to a hash. It will be
|
|
converted into a string:
|
|
|
|
$x{ \$a } = $a;
|
|
|
|
If you try to dereference the key, it won't do a hard dereference, and
|
|
you won't accomplish what you're attempting. You might want to do something
|
|
more like
|
|
|
|
$r = \@a;
|
|
$x{ $r } = $r;
|
|
|
|
And then at least you can use the values(), which will be
|
|
real refs, instead of the keys(), which won't.
|
|
|
|
The standard Tie::RefHash module provides a convenient workaround to this.
|
|
|
|
=head1 SEE ALSO
|
|
|
|
Besides the obvious documents, source code can be instructive.
|
|
Some pathological examples of the use of references can be found
|
|
in the F<t/op/ref.t> regression test in the Perl source directory.
|
|
|
|
See also L<perldsc> and L<perllol> for how to use references to create
|
|
complex data structures, and L<perltoot>, L<perlobj>, and L<perlbot>
|
|
for how to use them to create objects.
|