618 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
618 lines
21 KiB
Plaintext
=head1 NAME
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perlsyn - Perl syntax
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=head1 DESCRIPTION
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A Perl script consists of a sequence of declarations and statements.
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The only things that need to be declared in Perl are report formats
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and subroutines. See the sections below for more information on those
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declarations. All uninitialized user-created objects are assumed to
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start with a C<null> or C<0> value until they are defined by some explicit
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operation such as assignment. (Though you can get warnings about the
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use of undefined values if you like.) The sequence of statements is
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executed just once, unlike in B<sed> and B<awk> scripts, where the
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sequence of statements is executed for each input line. While this means
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that you must explicitly loop over the lines of your input file (or
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files), it also means you have much more control over which files and
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which lines you look at. (Actually, I'm lying--it is possible to do an
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implicit loop with either the B<-n> or B<-p> switch. It's just not the
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mandatory default like it is in B<sed> and B<awk>.)
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=head2 Declarations
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Perl is, for the most part, a free-form language. (The only
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exception to this is format declarations, for obvious reasons.) Comments
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are indicated by the C<"#"> character, and extend to the end of the line. If
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you attempt to use C</* */> C-style comments, it will be interpreted
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either as division or pattern matching, depending on the context, and C++
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C<//> comments just look like a null regular expression, so don't do
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that.
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A declaration can be put anywhere a statement can, but has no effect on
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the execution of the primary sequence of statements--declarations all
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take effect at compile time. Typically all the declarations are put at
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the beginning or the end of the script. However, if you're using
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lexically-scoped private variables created with C<my()>, you'll have to make sure
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your format or subroutine definition is within the same block scope
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as the my if you expect to be able to access those private variables.
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Declaring a subroutine allows a subroutine name to be used as if it were a
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list operator from that point forward in the program. You can declare a
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subroutine without defining it by saying C<sub name>, thus:
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sub myname;
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$me = myname $0 or die "can't get myname";
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Note that it functions as a list operator, not as a unary operator; so
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be careful to use C<or> instead of C<||> in this case. However, if
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you were to declare the subroutine as C<sub myname ($)>, then
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C<myname> would function as a unary operator, so either C<or> or
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C<||> would work.
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Subroutines declarations can also be loaded up with the C<require> statement
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or both loaded and imported into your namespace with a C<use> statement.
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See L<perlmod> for details on this.
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A statement sequence may contain declarations of lexically-scoped
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variables, but apart from declaring a variable name, the declaration acts
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like an ordinary statement, and is elaborated within the sequence of
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statements as if it were an ordinary statement. That means it actually
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has both compile-time and run-time effects.
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=head2 Simple statements
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The only kind of simple statement is an expression evaluated for its
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side effects. Every simple statement must be terminated with a
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semicolon, unless it is the final statement in a block, in which case
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the semicolon is optional. (A semicolon is still encouraged there if the
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block takes up more than one line, because you may eventually add another line.)
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Note that there are some operators like C<eval {}> and C<do {}> that look
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like compound statements, but aren't (they're just TERMs in an expression),
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and thus need an explicit termination if used as the last item in a statement.
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Any simple statement may optionally be followed by a I<SINGLE> modifier,
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just before the terminating semicolon (or block ending). The possible
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modifiers are:
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if EXPR
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unless EXPR
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while EXPR
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until EXPR
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foreach EXPR
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The C<if> and C<unless> modifiers have the expected semantics,
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presuming you're a speaker of English. The C<foreach> modifier is an
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iterator: For each value in EXPR, it aliases C<$_> to the value and
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executes the statement. The C<while> and C<until> modifiers have the
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usual "C<while> loop" semantics (conditional evaluated first), except
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when applied to a C<do>-BLOCK (or to the now-deprecated C<do>-SUBROUTINE
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statement), in which case the block executes once before the
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conditional is evaluated. This is so that you can write loops like:
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do {
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$line = <STDIN>;
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...
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} until $line eq ".\n";
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See L<perlfunc/do>. Note also that the loop control statements described
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later will I<NOT> work in this construct, because modifiers don't take
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loop labels. Sorry. You can always put another block inside of it
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(for C<next>) or around it (for C<last>) to do that sort of thing.
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For C<next>, just double the braces:
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do {{
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next if $x == $y;
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# do something here
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}} until $x++ > $z;
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For C<last>, you have to be more elaborate:
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LOOP: {
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do {
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last if $x = $y**2;
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# do something here
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} while $x++ <= $z;
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}
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=head2 Compound statements
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In Perl, a sequence of statements that defines a scope is called a block.
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Sometimes a block is delimited by the file containing it (in the case
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of a required file, or the program as a whole), and sometimes a block
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is delimited by the extent of a string (in the case of an eval).
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But generally, a block is delimited by curly brackets, also known as braces.
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We will call this syntactic construct a BLOCK.
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The following compound statements may be used to control flow:
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if (EXPR) BLOCK
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if (EXPR) BLOCK else BLOCK
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if (EXPR) BLOCK elsif (EXPR) BLOCK ... else BLOCK
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LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK
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LABEL while (EXPR) BLOCK continue BLOCK
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LABEL for (EXPR; EXPR; EXPR) BLOCK
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LABEL foreach VAR (LIST) BLOCK
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LABEL BLOCK continue BLOCK
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Note that, unlike C and Pascal, these are defined in terms of BLOCKs,
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not statements. This means that the curly brackets are I<required>--no
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dangling statements allowed. If you want to write conditionals without
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curly brackets there are several other ways to do it. The following
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all do the same thing:
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if (!open(FOO)) { die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; }
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die "Can't open $FOO: $!" unless open(FOO);
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open(FOO) or die "Can't open $FOO: $!"; # FOO or bust!
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open(FOO) ? 'hi mom' : die "Can't open $FOO: $!";
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# a bit exotic, that last one
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The C<if> statement is straightforward. Because BLOCKs are always
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bounded by curly brackets, there is never any ambiguity about which
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C<if> an C<else> goes with. If you use C<unless> in place of C<if>,
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the sense of the test is reversed.
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The C<while> statement executes the block as long as the expression is
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true (does not evaluate to the null string (C<"">) or C<0> or C<"0")>. The LABEL is
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optional, and if present, consists of an identifier followed by a colon.
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The LABEL identifies the loop for the loop control statements C<next>,
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C<last>, and C<redo>. If the LABEL is omitted, the loop control statement
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refers to the innermost enclosing loop. This may include dynamically
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looking back your call-stack at run time to find the LABEL. Such
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desperate behavior triggers a warning if you use the B<-w> flag.
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If there is a C<continue> BLOCK, it is always executed just before the
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conditional is about to be evaluated again, just like the third part of a
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C<for> loop in C. Thus it can be used to increment a loop variable, even
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when the loop has been continued via the C<next> statement (which is
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similar to the C C<continue> statement).
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=head2 Loop Control
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The C<next> command is like the C<continue> statement in C; it starts
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the next iteration of the loop:
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LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
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next LINE if /^#/; # discard comments
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...
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}
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The C<last> command is like the C<break> statement in C (as used in
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loops); it immediately exits the loop in question. The
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C<continue> block, if any, is not executed:
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LINE: while (<STDIN>) {
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last LINE if /^$/; # exit when done with header
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...
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}
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The C<redo> command restarts the loop block without evaluating the
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conditional again. The C<continue> block, if any, is I<not> executed.
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This command is normally used by programs that want to lie to themselves
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about what was just input.
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For example, when processing a file like F</etc/termcap>.
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If your input lines might end in backslashes to indicate continuation, you
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want to skip ahead and get the next record.
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while (<>) {
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chomp;
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if (s/\\$//) {
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$_ .= <>;
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redo unless eof();
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}
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# now process $_
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}
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which is Perl short-hand for the more explicitly written version:
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LINE: while (defined($line = <ARGV>)) {
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chomp($line);
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if ($line =~ s/\\$//) {
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$line .= <ARGV>;
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redo LINE unless eof(); # not eof(ARGV)!
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}
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# now process $line
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}
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Note that if there were a C<continue> block on the above code, it would get
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executed even on discarded lines. This is often used to reset line counters
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or C<?pat?> one-time matches.
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# inspired by :1,$g/fred/s//WILMA/
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while (<>) {
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?(fred)? && s//WILMA $1 WILMA/;
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?(barney)? && s//BETTY $1 BETTY/;
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?(homer)? && s//MARGE $1 MARGE/;
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} continue {
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print "$ARGV $.: $_";
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close ARGV if eof(); # reset $.
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reset if eof(); # reset ?pat?
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}
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If the word C<while> is replaced by the word C<until>, the sense of the
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test is reversed, but the conditional is still tested before the first
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iteration.
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The loop control statements don't work in an C<if> or C<unless>, since
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they aren't loops. You can double the braces to make them such, though.
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if (/pattern/) {{
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next if /fred/;
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next if /barney/;
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# so something here
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}}
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The form C<while/if BLOCK BLOCK>, available in Perl 4, is no longer
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available. Replace any occurrence of C<if BLOCK> by C<if (do BLOCK)>.
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=head2 For Loops
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Perl's C-style C<for> loop works exactly like the corresponding C<while> loop;
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that means that this:
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for ($i = 1; $i < 10; $i++) {
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...
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}
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is the same as this:
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$i = 1;
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while ($i < 10) {
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...
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} continue {
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$i++;
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}
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(There is one minor difference: The first form implies a lexical scope
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for variables declared with C<my> in the initialization expression.)
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Besides the normal array index looping, C<for> can lend itself
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to many other interesting applications. Here's one that avoids the
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problem you get into if you explicitly test for end-of-file on
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an interactive file descriptor causing your program to appear to
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hang.
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$on_a_tty = -t STDIN && -t STDOUT;
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sub prompt { print "yes? " if $on_a_tty }
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for ( prompt(); <STDIN>; prompt() ) {
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# do something
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}
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=head2 Foreach Loops
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The C<foreach> loop iterates over a normal list value and sets the
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variable VAR to be each element of the list in turn. If the variable
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is preceded with the keyword C<my>, then it is lexically scoped, and
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is therefore visible only within the loop. Otherwise, the variable is
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implicitly local to the loop and regains its former value upon exiting
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the loop. If the variable was previously declared with C<my>, it uses
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that variable instead of the global one, but it's still localized to
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the loop. (Note that a lexically scoped variable can cause problems
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if you have subroutine or format declarations within the loop which
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refer to it.)
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The C<foreach> keyword is actually a synonym for the C<for> keyword, so
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you can use C<foreach> for readability or C<for> for brevity. (Or because
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the Bourne shell is more familiar to you than I<csh>, so writing C<for>
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comes more naturally.) If VAR is omitted, C<$_> is set to each value.
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If any element of LIST is an lvalue, you can modify it by modifying VAR
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inside the loop. That's because the C<foreach> loop index variable is
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an implicit alias for each item in the list that you're looping over.
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If any part of LIST is an array, C<foreach> will get very confused if
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you add or remove elements within the loop body, for example with
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C<splice>. So don't do that.
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C<foreach> probably won't do what you expect if VAR is a tied or other
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special variable. Don't do that either.
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Examples:
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for (@ary) { s/foo/bar/ }
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foreach my $elem (@elements) {
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$elem *= 2;
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}
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for $count (10,9,8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1,'BOOM') {
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print $count, "\n"; sleep(1);
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}
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for (1..15) { print "Merry Christmas\n"; }
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foreach $item (split(/:[\\\n:]*/, $ENV{TERMCAP})) {
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print "Item: $item\n";
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}
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Here's how a C programmer might code up a particular algorithm in Perl:
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for (my $i = 0; $i < @ary1; $i++) {
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for (my $j = 0; $j < @ary2; $j++) {
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if ($ary1[$i] > $ary2[$j]) {
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last; # can't go to outer :-(
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}
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$ary1[$i] += $ary2[$j];
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}
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# this is where that last takes me
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}
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Whereas here's how a Perl programmer more comfortable with the idiom might
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do it:
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OUTER: foreach my $wid (@ary1) {
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INNER: foreach my $jet (@ary2) {
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next OUTER if $wid > $jet;
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$wid += $jet;
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}
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}
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See how much easier this is? It's cleaner, safer, and faster. It's
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cleaner because it's less noisy. It's safer because if code gets added
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between the inner and outer loops later on, the new code won't be
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accidentally executed. The C<next> explicitly iterates the other loop
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rather than merely terminating the inner one. And it's faster because
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Perl executes a C<foreach> statement more rapidly than it would the
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equivalent C<for> loop.
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=head2 Basic BLOCKs and Switch Statements
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A BLOCK by itself (labeled or not) is semantically equivalent to a
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loop that executes once. Thus you can use any of the loop control
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statements in it to leave or restart the block. (Note that this is
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I<NOT> true in C<eval{}>, C<sub{}>, or contrary to popular belief
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C<do{}> blocks, which do I<NOT> count as loops.) The C<continue>
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block is optional.
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The BLOCK construct is particularly nice for doing case
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structures.
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SWITCH: {
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if (/^abc/) { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; }
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if (/^def/) { $def = 1; last SWITCH; }
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if (/^xyz/) { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; }
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$nothing = 1;
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}
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There is no official C<switch> statement in Perl, because there are
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already several ways to write the equivalent. In addition to the
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above, you could write
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SWITCH: {
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$abc = 1, last SWITCH if /^abc/;
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$def = 1, last SWITCH if /^def/;
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$xyz = 1, last SWITCH if /^xyz/;
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$nothing = 1;
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}
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(That's actually not as strange as it looks once you realize that you can
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use loop control "operators" within an expression, That's just the normal
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C comma operator.)
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or
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SWITCH: {
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/^abc/ && do { $abc = 1; last SWITCH; };
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/^def/ && do { $def = 1; last SWITCH; };
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/^xyz/ && do { $xyz = 1; last SWITCH; };
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$nothing = 1;
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}
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or formatted so it stands out more as a "proper" C<switch> statement:
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SWITCH: {
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/^abc/ && do {
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$abc = 1;
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last SWITCH;
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};
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/^def/ && do {
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$def = 1;
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last SWITCH;
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};
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/^xyz/ && do {
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$xyz = 1;
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last SWITCH;
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};
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$nothing = 1;
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}
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or
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SWITCH: {
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/^abc/ and $abc = 1, last SWITCH;
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/^def/ and $def = 1, last SWITCH;
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/^xyz/ and $xyz = 1, last SWITCH;
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$nothing = 1;
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}
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or even, horrors,
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if (/^abc/)
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{ $abc = 1 }
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elsif (/^def/)
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{ $def = 1 }
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elsif (/^xyz/)
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{ $xyz = 1 }
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else
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{ $nothing = 1 }
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A common idiom for a C<switch> statement is to use C<foreach>'s aliasing to make
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a temporary assignment to C<$_> for convenient matching:
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SWITCH: for ($where) {
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/In Card Names/ && do { push @flags, '-e'; last; };
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/Anywhere/ && do { push @flags, '-h'; last; };
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/In Rulings/ && do { last; };
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die "unknown value for form variable where: `$where'";
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}
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Another interesting approach to a switch statement is arrange
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for a C<do> block to return the proper value:
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$amode = do {
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if ($flag & O_RDONLY) { "r" } # XXX: isn't this 0?
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elsif ($flag & O_WRONLY) { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a" : "w" }
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elsif ($flag & O_RDWR) {
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if ($flag & O_CREAT) { "w+" }
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else { ($flag & O_APPEND) ? "a+" : "r+" }
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}
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};
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Or
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print do {
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($flags & O_WRONLY) ? "write-only" :
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($flags & O_RDWR) ? "read-write" :
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"read-only";
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};
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Or if you are certainly that all the C<&&> clauses are true, you can use
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something like this, which "switches" on the value of the
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C<HTTP_USER_AGENT> envariable.
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#!/usr/bin/perl
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# pick out jargon file page based on browser
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$dir = 'http://www.wins.uva.nl/~mes/jargon';
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for ($ENV{HTTP_USER_AGENT}) {
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$page = /Mac/ && 'm/Macintrash.html'
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|| /Win(dows )?NT/ && 'e/evilandrude.html'
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|| /Win|MSIE|WebTV/ && 'm/MicroslothWindows.html'
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|| /Linux/ && 'l/Linux.html'
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|| /HP-UX/ && 'h/HP-SUX.html'
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|| /SunOS/ && 's/ScumOS.html'
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|| 'a/AppendixB.html';
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}
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print "Location: $dir/$page\015\012\015\012";
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That kind of switch statement only works when you know the C<&&> clauses
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will be true. If you don't, the previous C<?:> example should be used.
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You might also consider writing a hash instead of synthesizing a C<switch>
|
|
statement.
|
|
|
|
=head2 Goto
|
|
|
|
Although not for the faint of heart, Perl does support a C<goto> statement.
|
|
A loop's LABEL is not actually a valid target for a C<goto>;
|
|
it's just the name of the loop. There are three forms: C<goto>-LABEL,
|
|
C<goto>-EXPR, and C<goto>-&NAME.
|
|
|
|
The C<goto>-LABEL form finds the statement labeled with LABEL and resumes
|
|
execution there. It may not be used to go into any construct that
|
|
requires initialization, such as a subroutine or a C<foreach> loop. It
|
|
also can't be used to go into a construct that is optimized away. It
|
|
can be used to go almost anywhere else within the dynamic scope,
|
|
including out of subroutines, but it's usually better to use some other
|
|
construct such as C<last> or C<die>. The author of Perl has never felt the
|
|
need to use this form of C<goto> (in Perl, that is--C is another matter).
|
|
|
|
The C<goto>-EXPR form expects a label name, whose scope will be resolved
|
|
dynamically. This allows for computed C<goto>s per FORTRAN, but isn't
|
|
necessarily recommended if you're optimizing for maintainability:
|
|
|
|
goto ("FOO", "BAR", "GLARCH")[$i];
|
|
|
|
The C<goto>-&NAME form is highly magical, and substitutes a call to the
|
|
named subroutine for the currently running subroutine. This is used by
|
|
C<AUTOLOAD()> subroutines that wish to load another subroutine and then
|
|
pretend that the other subroutine had been called in the first place
|
|
(except that any modifications to C<@_> in the current subroutine are
|
|
propagated to the other subroutine.) After the C<goto>, not even C<caller()>
|
|
will be able to tell that this routine was called first.
|
|
|
|
In almost all cases like this, it's usually a far, far better idea to use the
|
|
structured control flow mechanisms of C<next>, C<last>, or C<redo> instead of
|
|
resorting to a C<goto>. For certain applications, the catch and throw pair of
|
|
C<eval{}> and die() for exception processing can also be a prudent approach.
|
|
|
|
=head2 PODs: Embedded Documentation
|
|
|
|
Perl has a mechanism for intermixing documentation with source code.
|
|
While it's expecting the beginning of a new statement, if the compiler
|
|
encounters a line that begins with an equal sign and a word, like this
|
|
|
|
=head1 Here There Be Pods!
|
|
|
|
Then that text and all remaining text up through and including a line
|
|
beginning with C<=cut> will be ignored. The format of the intervening
|
|
text is described in L<perlpod>.
|
|
|
|
This allows you to intermix your source code
|
|
and your documentation text freely, as in
|
|
|
|
=item snazzle($)
|
|
|
|
The snazzle() function will behave in the most spectacular
|
|
form that you can possibly imagine, not even excepting
|
|
cybernetic pyrotechnics.
|
|
|
|
=cut back to the compiler, nuff of this pod stuff!
|
|
|
|
sub snazzle($) {
|
|
my $thingie = shift;
|
|
.........
|
|
}
|
|
|
|
Note that pod translators should look at only paragraphs beginning
|
|
with a pod directive (it makes parsing easier), whereas the compiler
|
|
actually knows to look for pod escapes even in the middle of a
|
|
paragraph. This means that the following secret stuff will be
|
|
ignored by both the compiler and the translators.
|
|
|
|
$a=3;
|
|
=secret stuff
|
|
warn "Neither POD nor CODE!?"
|
|
=cut back
|
|
print "got $a\n";
|
|
|
|
You probably shouldn't rely upon the C<warn()> being podded out forever.
|
|
Not all pod translators are well-behaved in this regard, and perhaps
|
|
the compiler will become pickier.
|
|
|
|
One may also use pod directives to quickly comment out a section
|
|
of code.
|
|
|
|
=head2 Plain Old Comments (Not!)
|
|
|
|
Much like the C preprocessor, Perl can process line directives. Using
|
|
this, one can control Perl's idea of filenames and line numbers in
|
|
error or warning messages (especially for strings that are processed
|
|
with C<eval()>). The syntax for this mechanism is the same as for most
|
|
C preprocessors: it matches the regular expression
|
|
C</^#\s*line\s+(\d+)\s*(?:\s"([^"]*)")?/> with C<$1> being the line
|
|
number for the next line, and C<$2> being the optional filename
|
|
(specified within quotes).
|
|
|
|
Here are some examples that you should be able to type into your command
|
|
shell:
|
|
|
|
% perl
|
|
# line 200 "bzzzt"
|
|
# the `#' on the previous line must be the first char on line
|
|
die 'foo';
|
|
__END__
|
|
foo at bzzzt line 201.
|
|
|
|
% perl
|
|
# line 200 "bzzzt"
|
|
eval qq[\n#line 2001 ""\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
|
|
__END__
|
|
foo at - line 2001.
|
|
|
|
% perl
|
|
eval qq[\n#line 200 "foo bar"\ndie 'foo']; print $@;
|
|
__END__
|
|
foo at foo bar line 200.
|
|
|
|
% perl
|
|
# line 345 "goop"
|
|
eval "\n#line " . __LINE__ . ' "' . __FILE__ ."\"\ndie 'foo'";
|
|
print $@;
|
|
__END__
|
|
foo at goop line 345.
|
|
|
|
=cut
|