1912 lines
65 KiB
Plaintext
1912 lines
65 KiB
Plaintext
.\" Copyright (c) 1980, 1993 Regents of the University of California.
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.\" All rights reserved.
|
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.\"
|
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.\" Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without
|
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.\" modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions
|
||
.\" are met:
|
||
.\" 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright
|
||
.\" notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
|
||
.\" 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright
|
||
.\" notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the
|
||
.\" documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution.
|
||
.\" 3. All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
|
||
.\" must display the following acknowledgement:
|
||
.\" This product includes software developed by the University of
|
||
.\" California, Berkeley and its contributors.
|
||
.\" 4. Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
|
||
.\" may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
|
||
.\" without specific prior written permission.
|
||
.\"
|
||
.\" THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
|
||
.\" ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
|
||
.\" IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
|
||
.\" ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
|
||
.\" FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
|
||
.\" DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
|
||
.\" OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
|
||
.\" HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
|
||
.\" LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
|
||
.\" OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
|
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.\" SUCH DAMAGE.
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||
.\"
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.\" @(#)title.urm 8.7 (Berkeley) 4/20/94
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.\" $FreeBSD$
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||
.\"
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.af % i
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.EH ''''
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.OH ''''
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.OF '''\s10- % -\s0'
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.EF '\s10- % -\s0'''
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\&
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.sp |2.75i
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.nr PS 24
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.nr VS 28
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.LP
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.ft B
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.ce 2
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FreeBSD User's Reference Manual
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(URM)
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.nr LL 5.5i
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.nr PO 1.5i
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.bp
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\&
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||
.sp |1.5i
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||
.nr PS 11
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.nr VS 13
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.LP
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||
This stiff doesn't really belong here...
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||
The USENIX Association,
|
||
the UNIX and Advanced Computing Systems professional and technical organization,
|
||
is a not-for-profit membership association of individuals and
|
||
institutions with an interest in UNIX and UNIX-like systems,
|
||
and, by extension, C++, X Window System, and other programming tools.
|
||
It is dedicated to:
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
fostering innovation and communicating research and technological developments,
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
sharing ideas and experience relevant to UNIX,
|
||
UNIX-related, and advanced computing systems, and
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
providing a neutral forum for the exercise of critical
|
||
thought and airing of technical issues.
|
||
.LP
|
||
USENIX publishes a journal (\fBComputing Systems\fP),
|
||
Conference and Workshop Proceedings, and a Book Series.
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.nr LL 6i
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.nr PO 1i
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.bp
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\&
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.sp |2.75i
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.nr PS 18
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.nr VS 22
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.LP
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||
.ft B
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.ce 2
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FreeBSD User's Reference Manual
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||
(URM)
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.sp |4i
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||
.ce 2
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For FreeBSD version 2.1
|
||
(March, 1995)
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||
.sp 3
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.nr PS 15
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||
.nr VS 18
|
||
.LP
|
||
.ce 2
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||
The FreeBSD Project
|
||
<hackers@FreeBSD.ORG>
|
||
.sp |8.2i
|
||
.nr PS 12
|
||
.nr VS 15
|
||
.LP
|
||
.ce 4
|
||
foo - publisher?
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||
.bp
|
||
.hy 0
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||
.nr PS 9
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||
.nr VS 11
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.LP
|
||
First Printing, 1995
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.sp 1
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||
.LP
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||
Copyright 1979, 1980, 1983, 1986, 1993
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The Regents of the University of California. All rights reserved.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.LP
|
||
Other than the specific manual pages and documents listed below
|
||
as copyrighted by AT&T,
|
||
redistribution and use of this manual in source and binary forms,
|
||
with or without modification, are permitted provided that the
|
||
following conditions are met:
|
||
.IP 1)
|
||
Redistributions of this manual must retain the copyright
|
||
notices on this page, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer.
|
||
.IP 2)
|
||
Software or documentation that incorporates part of this manual must
|
||
reproduce the copyright notices on this page, this list of conditions and
|
||
the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials
|
||
provided with the distribution.
|
||
.IP 3)
|
||
All advertising materials mentioning features or use of this software
|
||
must display the following acknowledgement:
|
||
``This product includes software developed by the University of
|
||
California, Berkeley and its contributors.''
|
||
.IP 4)
|
||
Neither the name of the University nor the names of its contributors
|
||
may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software
|
||
without specific prior written permission.
|
||
.LP
|
||
\fB\s-1THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE REGENTS AND CONTRIBUTORS ``AS IS'' AND
|
||
ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE
|
||
IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE
|
||
ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE REGENTS OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE
|
||
FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL
|
||
DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS
|
||
OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION)
|
||
HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT
|
||
LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY
|
||
OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF
|
||
SUCH DAMAGE.\s+1\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.LP
|
||
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and the American
|
||
National Standards Committee X3, on Information Processing Systems have
|
||
given us permission to reprint portions of their documentation.
|
||
.sp 0.5
|
||
.LP
|
||
In the following statement, the phrase ``this text'' refers to portions
|
||
of the system documentation.
|
||
.LP
|
||
``Portions of this text are reprinted and reproduced in
|
||
electronic form in 4.4BSD from IEEE Std 1003.1-1988, IEEE
|
||
Standard Portable Operating System Interface for Computer Environments
|
||
(POSIX), copyright 1988 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
|
||
Engineers, Inc. In the event of any discrepancy between these versions
|
||
and the original IEEE Standard, the original IEEE Standard is the referee
|
||
document.''
|
||
.sp 0.5
|
||
.LP
|
||
In the following statement, the phrase ``This material'' refers to portions
|
||
of the system documentation.
|
||
.LP
|
||
``This material is reproduced with permission from American National
|
||
Standards Committee X3, on Information Processing Systems. Computer and
|
||
Business Equipment Manufacturers Association (CBEMA), 311 First St., NW,
|
||
Suite 500, Washington, DC 20001-2178. The developmental work of
|
||
Programming Language C was completed by the X3J11 Technical Committee.''
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.LP
|
||
The views and conclusions contained in this manual are those of the
|
||
authors and should not be interpreted as representing official policies,
|
||
either expressed or implied, of the Regents of the University of California.
|
||
.sp 1
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||
.LP
|
||
This book was printed and bound in the United States of America.
|
||
.bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.sp |1.5i
|
||
.nr PS 11
|
||
.nr VS 13
|
||
.LP
|
||
.ce 1
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||
\s+4\fBContents\fP\s-4
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
.TS
|
||
expand;
|
||
l r.
|
||
The Computer Systems Research Group, 1979\-1993 vii
|
||
Prefaces xi
|
||
Introduction xvii
|
||
List of Manual Pages xxiii
|
||
Permuted Index xli
|
||
Reference Manual Sections 1, 6, 7 tabbed pages
|
||
List of Documents inside back cover
|
||
.TE
|
||
.if o .bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.bp
|
||
.\"
|
||
.\" The contributor list below is derived from the file that resides in
|
||
.\" vangogh:~admin/contrib/contrib:
|
||
.\"
|
||
.\" @(#)contrib 5.54 (Berkeley) 4/17/94
|
||
.\"
|
||
.\" This file should not be editted, rather the original contrib file
|
||
.\" should be used to recrete this one following the directions at its top.
|
||
.\" Contrib starts here and continues to the comment `END OF CONTRIB'.
|
||
.\"
|
||
\&
|
||
.sp |1i
|
||
.ps 16
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fBThe Computer Systems Research Group 1979 \- 1993\fP
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
.nr PS 11
|
||
.nr VS 12
|
||
.LP
|
||
.nf
|
||
.in +0.5i
|
||
\fBCSRG Technical Staff\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in +1i
|
||
Jim Bloom
|
||
Keith Bostic
|
||
Ralph Campbell
|
||
Kevin Dunlap
|
||
William N. Joy
|
||
Michael J. Karels
|
||
Samuel J. Leffler
|
||
Marshall Kirk McKusick
|
||
Miriam Amos Nihart
|
||
Keith Sklower
|
||
Marc Teitelbaum
|
||
Michael Toy
|
||
.in -1i
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
\fBCSRG Administration and Support\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in +1i
|
||
Robert Fabry
|
||
Domenico Ferrari
|
||
Susan L. Graham
|
||
Bob Henry
|
||
Anne Hughes
|
||
Bob Kridle
|
||
David Mosher
|
||
Pauline Schwartz
|
||
Mark Seiden
|
||
Jean Wood
|
||
.in -1i
|
||
.fi
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
\fBOrganizations that funded the CSRG with grants,
|
||
gifts, personnel, and/or hardware.\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.nf
|
||
.in +1i
|
||
Center for Advanced Aviation System Development, The MITRE Corp.
|
||
Compaq Computer Corporation
|
||
Cray Research Inc.
|
||
Department of Defense Advance Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
|
||
Digital Equipment Corporation
|
||
The Hewlett-Packard Company
|
||
NASA Ames Research Center
|
||
The National Science Foundation
|
||
The Open Software Foundation
|
||
UUNET Technologies Inc.
|
||
.in -1.5i
|
||
.fi
|
||
.bp
|
||
.nr PS 10
|
||
.nr VS 11
|
||
.LP
|
||
\fBThe following are people and organizations that provided a
|
||
large subsystem for the BSD releases.\fP
|
||
.sp
|
||
.TS
|
||
l l.
|
||
ANSI C library Chris Torek
|
||
ANSI C prototypes Donn Seeley and John Kohl
|
||
Autoconfiguration Robert Elz
|
||
C library documentation American National Standards Committee X3
|
||
CCI 6/32 support Computer Consoles Inc.
|
||
DEC 3000/5000 support Ralph Campbell
|
||
Disklabels Symmetric Computer Systems
|
||
Documentation Cynthia Livingston and The USENIX Association
|
||
Franz Lisp Richard Fateman, John Foderaro, Keith Sklower, Kevin Layer
|
||
GCC, GDB The Free Software Foundation
|
||
Groff James Clark (The FSF)
|
||
HP300 support Jeff Forys, Mike Hibler, Jay Lepreau, Donn Seeley and the Systems
|
||
Programming Group; University of Utah Computer Science Department
|
||
ISODE Marshall Rose
|
||
Ingres Mike Stonebraker, Gene Wong, and the Berkeley Ingres Research Group
|
||
Intel 386/486 support Bill Jolitz and TeleMuse
|
||
Job control Jim Kulp
|
||
Kerberos Project Athena and MIT
|
||
Kernel support Bill Shannon and Sun Microsystems Inc.
|
||
LFS Margo Seltzer, Mendel Rosenblum, Carl Staelin
|
||
MIPS support Trent Hein
|
||
Math library K.C. Ng, Zhishun Alex Liu, S. McDonald, P. Tang and W. Kahan
|
||
NFS Rick Macklem
|
||
NFS automounter Jan-Simon Pendry
|
||
Network device drivers Micom-Interlan and Excelan
|
||
Omron Luna support Akito Fujita and Shigeto Mochida
|
||
Quotas Robert Elz
|
||
RPC support Sun Microsystems Inc.
|
||
Shared library support Rob Gingell and Sun Microsystems Inc.
|
||
Sony News 3400 support Kazumasa Utashiro
|
||
Sparc I/II support Computer Systems Engineering Group, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
|
||
Stackable file systems John Heidemann
|
||
Stdio Chris Torek
|
||
System documentation The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.
|
||
TCP/IP Rob Gurwitz and Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.
|
||
Timezone support Arthur David Olson
|
||
Transport/Network OSI layers IBM Corporation and the University of Wisconsin
|
||
Kernel XNS assistance William Nesheim, J. Q. Johnson, Chris Torek, and James O'Toole
|
||
User level XNS Cornell University
|
||
VAX 3000 support Mt. Xinu and Tom Ferrin
|
||
VAX BI support Chris Torek
|
||
VAX device support Digital Equipment Corporation and Helge Skrivervik
|
||
Versatec printer/plotter support University of Toronto
|
||
Virtual memory implementation Avadis Tevanian, Jr., Michael Wayne Young,
|
||
and the Carnegie-Mellon University Mach project
|
||
X25 University of British Columbia
|
||
.TE
|
||
.bp
|
||
.LP
|
||
\fBThe following are people and organizations that provided a specific
|
||
item, program, library routine or program maintenance for the BSD system.
|
||
(Their contribution may not be part of the final 4.4BSD release.)\fP
|
||
.sp 0.4
|
||
.nr PS 9
|
||
.nr VS 10
|
||
.ps 9
|
||
.vs 10
|
||
.TS
|
||
l l.
|
||
386 device drivers Carnegie-Mellon University Mach project
|
||
386 device drivers Don Ahn, Sean Fagan and Tim Tucker
|
||
HCX device drivers Harris Corporation
|
||
Kernel enhancements Robert Elz, Peter Ivanov, Ian Johnstone, Piers Lauder,
|
||
John Lions, Tim Long, Chris Maltby, Greg Rose and John Wainwright
|
||
ISO-9660 filesystem Pace Willisson, Atsushi Murai
|
||
.TE
|
||
.TS
|
||
l l l l.
|
||
adventure(6) Don Woods log(3) Peter McIlroy
|
||
adventure(6) Jim Gillogly look(1) David Hitz
|
||
adventure(6) Will Crowther ls(1) Elan Amir
|
||
apply(1) Rob Pike ls(1) Michael Fischbein
|
||
ar(1) Hugh A. Smith lsearch(3) Roger L. Snyder
|
||
arithmetic(6) Eamonn McManus m4(1) Ozan Yigit
|
||
arp(8) Sun Microsystems Inc. mail(1) Kurt Schoens
|
||
at(1) Steve Wall make(1) Adam de Boor
|
||
atc(6) Ed James me(7) Eric Allman
|
||
awk(1) Arnold Robbins mergesort(3) Peter McIlroy
|
||
awk(1) David Trueman mh(1) Marshall Rose
|
||
backgammon(6) Alan Char mh(1) The Rand Corporation
|
||
banner(1) Mark Horton mille(6) Ken Arnold
|
||
battlestar(6) David Riggle mknod(8) Kevin Fall
|
||
bcd(6) Steve Hayman monop(6) Ken Arnold
|
||
bdes(1) Matt Bishop more(1) Eric Shienbrood
|
||
berknet(1) Eric Schmidt more(1) Mark Nudleman
|
||
bib(1) Dain Samples mountd(8) Herb Hasler
|
||
bib(1) Gary M. Levin mprof(1) Ben Zorn
|
||
bib(1) Timothy A. Budd msgs(1) David Wasley
|
||
bitstring(3) Paul Vixie multicast Stephen Deering
|
||
boggle(6) Barry Brachman mv(1) Ken Smith
|
||
bpf(4) Steven McCanne named/bind(8) Douglas Terry
|
||
btree(3) Mike Olson named/bind(8) Kevin Dunlap
|
||
byte-range locking Scooter Morris news(1) Rick Adams (and a cast of thousands)
|
||
caesar(6) John Eldridge nm(1) Hans Huebner
|
||
caesar(6) Stan King pascal(1) Kirk McKusick
|
||
cal(1) Kim Letkeman pascal(1) Peter Kessler
|
||
cat(1) Kevin Fall paste(1) Adam S. Moskowitz
|
||
chess(6) Stuart Cracraft (The FSF) patch(1) Larry Wall
|
||
ching(6) Guy Harris pax(1) Keith Muller
|
||
cksum(1) James W. Williams phantasia(6) C. Robertson
|
||
clri(8) Rich $alz phantasia(6) Edward A. Estes
|
||
col(1) Michael Rendell ping(8) Mike Muuss
|
||
comm(1) Case Larsen pom(6) Keith E. Brandt
|
||
compact(1) Colin L. McMaster pr(1) Keith Muller
|
||
compress(1) James A. Woods primes(6) Landon Curt Noll
|
||
compress(1) Joseph Orost qsort(3) Doug McIlroy
|
||
compress(1) Spencer Thomas qsort(3) Earl Cohen
|
||
courier(1) Eric Cooper qsort(3) Jon Bentley
|
||
cp(1) David Hitz quad(3) Chris Torek
|
||
cpio(1) AT&T quiz(6) Jim R. Oldroyd
|
||
crypt(3) Tom Truscott quiz(6) Keith Gabryelski
|
||
csh(1) Christos Zoulas radixsort(3) Dan Bernstein
|
||
csh(1) Len Shar radixsort(3) Peter McIlroy
|
||
curses(3) Elan Amir rain(6) Eric P. Scott
|
||
curses(3) Ken Arnold ranlib(1) Hugh A. Smith
|
||
cut(1) Adam S. Moskowitz rcs(1) Walter F. Tichy
|
||
cut(1) Marciano Pitargue rdist(1) Michael Cooper
|
||
dbx(1) Mark Linton regex(3) Henry Spencer
|
||
dd(1) Keith Muller robots(6) Ken Arnold
|
||
dd(1) Lance Visser rogue(6) Timothy C. Stoehr
|
||
des(1) Jim Gillogly rs(1) John Kunze
|
||
des(1) Phil Karn sail(6) David Riggle
|
||
des(1) Richard Outerbridge sail(6) Edward Wang
|
||
dipress(1) Xerox Corporation sccs(1) Eric Allman
|
||
disklabel(8) Symmetric Computer Systems scsiformat(1) Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory
|
||
du(1) Chris Newcomb sdb(1) Howard Katseff
|
||
dungeon(6) R.M. Supnik sed(1) Diomidis Spinellis
|
||
ed(1) Rodney Ruddock sendmail(8) Eric Allman
|
||
emacs(1) Richard Stallman setmode(3) Dave Borman
|
||
erf(3) Peter McIlroy, K.C. Ng sh(1) Kenneth Almquist
|
||
error(1) Robert R. Henry slattach(8) Rick Adams
|
||
ex(1) Mark Horton slip(8) Rick Adams
|
||
factor(6) Landon Curt Noll spms(1) Peter J. Nicklin
|
||
file(1) Ian Darwin strtod(3) David M. Gay
|
||
find(1) Cimarron Taylor swab(3) Jeffrey Mogul
|
||
finger(1) Tony Nardo sysconf(3) Sean Eric Fagan
|
||
fish(6) Muffy Barkocy sysline(1) J.K. Foderaro
|
||
fmt(1) Kurt Schoens syslog(3) Eric Allman
|
||
fnmatch(3) Guido van Rossum systat(1) Bill Reeves
|
||
fold(1) Kevin Ruddy systat(1) Robert Elz
|
||
fortune(6) Ken Arnold tail(1) Edward Sze-Tyan Wang
|
||
fpr(1) Robert Corbett talk(1) Clem Cole
|
||
fsdb(8) Computer Consoles Inc. talk(1) Kipp Hickman
|
||
fsplit(1) Asa Romberger talk(1) Peter Moore
|
||
fsplit(1) Jerry Berkman telnet(1) Dave Borman
|
||
gcc/groff integration UUNET Technologies, Inc. telnet(1) Paul Borman
|
||
gcore(1) Eric Cooper termcap(5) John A. Kunze
|
||
getcap(3) Casey Leedom termcap(5) Mark Horton
|
||
glob(3) Guido van Rossum test(1) Kenneth Almquist
|
||
gprof(1) Peter Kessler tetris(6) Chris Torek
|
||
gprof(1) Robert R. Henry tetris(6) Darren F. Provine
|
||
hack(6) Andries Brouwer (and a cast of thousands) timed(8) Riccardo Gusella
|
||
hangman(6) Ken Arnold timed(8) Stefano Zatti
|
||
hash(3) Margo Seltzer tn3270(1) Gregory Minshall
|
||
heapsort(3) Elmer Yglesias tr(1) Igor Belchinskiy
|
||
heapsort(3) Kevin Lew traceroute(8) Van Jacobson
|
||
heapsort(3) Ronnie Kon trek(6) Eric Allman
|
||
hunt(6) Conrad Huang tset(1) Eric Allman
|
||
hunt(6) Greg Couch tsort(1) Michael Rendell
|
||
icon(1) Bill Mitchell unifdef(1) Dave Yost
|
||
icon(1) Ralph Griswold uniq(1) Case Larsen
|
||
indent(1) David Willcox uucpd(8) Rick Adams
|
||
indent(1) Eric Schmidt uudecode(1) Mark Horton
|
||
indent(1) James Gosling uuencode(1) Mark Horton
|
||
indent(1) Sun Microsystems uuq(1) Lou Salkind
|
||
init(1) Donn Seeley uuq(1) Rick Adams
|
||
j0(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. uusnap(8) Randy King
|
||
j1(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. uusnap(8) Rick Adams
|
||
jn(3) Sun Microsystems, Inc. vacation(1) Eric Allman
|
||
join(1) David Goodenough vi(1) Steve Kirkendall
|
||
join(1) Michiro Hikida which(1) Peter Kessler
|
||
join(1) Steve Hayman who(1) Michael Fischbein
|
||
jot(1) John Kunze window(1) Edward Wang
|
||
jove(1) Jonathon Payne worm(6) Michael Toy
|
||
kermit(1) Columbia University worms(6) Eric P. Scott
|
||
kvm(3) Peter Shipley write(1) Craig Leres
|
||
kvm(3) Steven McCanne write(1) Jef Poskanzer
|
||
lam(1) John Kunze wump(6) Dave Taylor
|
||
larn(6) Noah Morgan X25/Ethernet Univ. of Erlangen-Nuremberg
|
||
lastcomm(1) Len Edmondson X25/LLC2 Dirk Husemann
|
||
lex(1) Vern Paxson xargs(1) John B. Roll Jr.
|
||
libm(3) Peter McIlroy xneko(6) Masayuki Koba
|
||
libm(3) UUNET Technologies, Inc. XNSrouted(1) Bill Nesheim
|
||
locate(1) James A. Woods xroach(6) J.T. Anderson
|
||
lock(1) Bob Toxen yacc(1) Robert Paul Corbett
|
||
.TE
|
||
.\"
|
||
.\" END OF CONTRIB: Contrib ends here.
|
||
.\"
|
||
.if o .bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.bp
|
||
.nr PS 10
|
||
.nr VS 12
|
||
\&
|
||
.sp |1.5i
|
||
.LP
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fB\s+4PREFACE\s-4\fP
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
.NH 1
|
||
Introduction
|
||
.PP
|
||
The major new facilities available in the 4.4BSD release are
|
||
a new virtual memory system,
|
||
the addition of ISO/OSI networking support,
|
||
a new virtual filesystem interface supporting filesystem stacking,
|
||
a freely redistributable implementation of NFS,
|
||
a log-structured filesystem,
|
||
enhancement of the local filesystems to support
|
||
files and filesystems that are up to 2^63 bytes in size,
|
||
enhanced security and system management support,
|
||
and the conversion to and addition of the IEEE Std1003.1 (``POSIX'')
|
||
facilities and many of the IEEE Std1003.2 facilities.
|
||
In addition, many new utilities and additions have been made to the C-library.
|
||
The kernel sources have been reorganized to collect all machine-dependent
|
||
files for each architecture under one directory,
|
||
and most of the machine-independent code is now free of code
|
||
conditional on specific machines.
|
||
The user structure and process structure have been reorganized
|
||
to eliminate the statically-mapped user structure and to make most
|
||
of the process resources shareable by multiple processes.
|
||
The system and include files have been converted to be compatible
|
||
with ANSI C, including function prototypes for most of the exported
|
||
functions.
|
||
There are numerous other changes throughout the system.
|
||
.NH 1
|
||
Changes in the Kernel
|
||
.PP
|
||
This release includes several important structural kernel changes.
|
||
The kernel uses a new internal system call convention;
|
||
the use of global (``u-dot'') variables for parameters and error returns
|
||
has been eliminated,
|
||
and interrupted system calls no longer abort using non-local goto's (longjmp's).
|
||
A new sleep interface separates signal handling from scheduling priority,
|
||
returning characteristic errors to abort or restart the current system call.
|
||
This sleep call also passes a string describing the process state,
|
||
which is used by the ps(1) program.
|
||
The old sleep interface can be used only for non-interruptible sleeps.
|
||
.PP
|
||
Many data structures that were previously statically allocated
|
||
are now allocated dynamically.
|
||
These structures include mount entries, file entries,
|
||
user open file descriptors, the process entries, the vnode table,
|
||
the name cache, and the quota structures.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The 4.4BSD distribution adds support for several new architectures including
|
||
SPARC-based Sparcstations 1 and 2,
|
||
MIPS-based Decstation 3100 and 5000 and Sony NEWS,
|
||
68000-based Hewlett-Packard 9000/300 and Omron Luna, and
|
||
386-based Personal Computers.
|
||
Both the HP300 and SPARC ports feature the ability to run binaries
|
||
built for the native operating system (HP-UX or SunOS) by emulating
|
||
their system calls.
|
||
Though this native operating system compatibility was provided by the
|
||
developers as needed for their purposes and is by no means complete,
|
||
it is complete enough to run several non-trivial applications including
|
||
those that require HP-UX or SunOS shared libraries.
|
||
For example, the vendor supplied X11 server and windowing environment
|
||
can be used on both the HP300 and SPARC.
|
||
.NH 2
|
||
Virtual memory changes
|
||
.PP
|
||
The new virtual memory implementation is derived from the MACH
|
||
operating system developed at Carnegie-Mellon,
|
||
and was ported to the BSD kernel at the University of Utah.
|
||
The MACH virtual memory system call interface has been replaced with the
|
||
``mmap''-based interface described in the ``Berkeley Software
|
||
Architecture Manual''.
|
||
The interface is similar to the interfaces shipped
|
||
by several commercial vendors such as Sun, USL, and Convex Computer Corp.
|
||
The integration of the new virtual memory is functionally complete,
|
||
but, like most MACH-based virtual memory systems,
|
||
still has serious performance problems under heavy memory load.
|
||
.NH 2
|
||
Networking additions and changes
|
||
.PP
|
||
The ISO/OSI Networking consists of a kernel implementation of
|
||
transport class 4 (TP-4),
|
||
connectionless networking protocol (CLNP),
|
||
and 802.3-based link-level support (hardware-compatible with Ethernet*).
|
||
.FS
|
||
*Ethernet is a trademark of the Xerox Corporation.
|
||
.FE
|
||
We also include support for ISO Connection-Oriented Network Service,
|
||
X.25, TP-0.
|
||
The session and presentation layers are provided outside
|
||
the kernel by the ISO development environment (ISODE).
|
||
Included in this development environment are file
|
||
transfer and management (FTAM), virtual terminals (VT),
|
||
a directory services implementation (X.500), and miscellaneous other utilities.
|
||
.PP
|
||
Several important enhancements have been added to the TCP/IP
|
||
protocols including TCP header prediction and
|
||
serial line IP (SLIP) with header compression.
|
||
The routing implementation has been completely rewritten
|
||
to use a hierarchical routing tree with a mask per route
|
||
to support the arbitrary levels of routing found in the ISO protocols.
|
||
The routing table also stores and caches route characteristics
|
||
to speed the adaptation of the throughput and congestion avoidance
|
||
algorithms.
|
||
.NH 2
|
||
Additions and changes to filesystems
|
||
.PP
|
||
The 4.4BSD distribution contains most of the interfaces
|
||
specified in the IEEE Std1003.1 system interface standard.
|
||
Filesystem additions include IEEE Std1003.1 FIFOs,
|
||
byte-range file locking, and saved user and group identifiers.
|
||
.PP
|
||
A new virtual filesystem interface has been added to the
|
||
kernel to support multiple filesystems.
|
||
In comparison with other interfaces,
|
||
the Berkeley interface has been structured for more efficient support
|
||
of filesystems that maintain state (such as the local filesystem).
|
||
The interface has been extended with support for stackable
|
||
filesystems done at UCLA.
|
||
These extensions allow for filesystems to be layered on top of each
|
||
other and allow new vnode operations to be added without requiring
|
||
changes to existing filesystem implementations.
|
||
For example, the umap filesystem
|
||
is used to mount a sub-tree of an existing filesystem
|
||
that uses a different set of uids and gids than the local system.
|
||
Such a filesystem could be mounted from a remote site via NFS or it
|
||
could be a filesystem on removable media brought from some foreign
|
||
location that uses a different password file.
|
||
.PP
|
||
In addition to the local ``fast filesystem'',
|
||
we have added an implementation of the network filesystem (NFS)
|
||
that fully interoperates with the NFS shipped by Sun and its licensees.
|
||
Because our NFS implementation was implemented using only the
|
||
publicly available NFS specification,
|
||
it does not require a license from Sun to use in source or binary form.
|
||
By default it runs over UDP to be compatible with Sun's implementation.
|
||
However, it can be configured on a per-mount basis to run over TCP.
|
||
Using TCP allows it to be used quickly and efficiently through
|
||
gateways and over long-haul networks.
|
||
Using an extended protocol, it supports Leases to allow a limited
|
||
callback mechanism that greatly reduces the network traffic necessary
|
||
to maintain cache consistency between the server and its clients.
|
||
.PP
|
||
A new log-structured filesystem has been added that provides
|
||
near disk-speed output and fast crash recovery.
|
||
It is still experimental in the 4.4BSD release,
|
||
so we do not recommend it for production use.
|
||
We have also added a memory-based filesystem that runs in
|
||
pageable memory, allowing large temporary filesystems without
|
||
requiring dedicated physical memory.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The local ``fast filesystem'' has been enhanced to do
|
||
clustering which allows large pieces of files to be
|
||
allocated contiguously resulting in near doubling
|
||
of filesystem throughput.
|
||
The filesystem interface has been extended to allow
|
||
files and filesystems to grow to 2^63 bytes in size.
|
||
The quota system has been rewritten to support both
|
||
user and group quotas (simultaneously if desired).
|
||
Quota expiration is based on time rather than
|
||
the previous metric of number of logins over quota.
|
||
This change makes quotas more useful on fileservers
|
||
onto which users seldom login.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The system security has been greatly enhanced by the
|
||
addition of additional file flags that permit a file to be
|
||
marked as immutable or append only.
|
||
Once set, these flags can only be cleared by the super-user
|
||
when the system is running single user.
|
||
To protect against indiscriminate reading or writing of kernel
|
||
memory, all writing and most reading of kernel data structures
|
||
must be done using a new ``sysctl'' interface.
|
||
The information to be access is described through an extensible
|
||
``Management Information Base'' (MIB).
|
||
.NH 2
|
||
POSIX terminal driver changes
|
||
.PP
|
||
The biggest area of change is a new terminal driver.
|
||
The terminal driver is similar to the System V terminal driver
|
||
with the addition of the necessary extensions to get the
|
||
functionality previously available in the 4.3BSD terminal driver.
|
||
4.4BSD also adds the IEEE Std1003.1 job control interface,
|
||
which is similar to the 4.3BSD job control interface,
|
||
but adds a security model that was missing in the
|
||
4.3BSD job control implementation.
|
||
A new system call, \fIsetsid\fP,
|
||
creates a job-control session consisting of a single process
|
||
group with one member, the caller, that becomes a session leader.
|
||
Only a session leader may acquire a controlling terminal.
|
||
This is done explicitly via a \s-1TIOCSCTTY\s+1 \fIioctl\fP call,
|
||
not implicitly by an \fIopen\fP call.
|
||
The call fails if the terminal is in use.
|
||
.PP
|
||
For backward compatibility,
|
||
both the old \fIioctl\fP
|
||
calls and old options to \fIstty\fP
|
||
are emulated.
|
||
.NH 1
|
||
Changes to the utilities
|
||
.PP
|
||
There are several new tools and utilities included in this release.
|
||
A new version of ``make'' allows much-simplified makefiles for the
|
||
system software and allows compilation for multiple architectures
|
||
from the same source tree (which may be mounted read-only).
|
||
Notable additions to the libraries include functions to traverse a
|
||
filesystem hierarchy, database interfaces to btree and hashing functions,
|
||
a new, fast implementation of stdio and a radix sort function.
|
||
The additions to the utility suite include greatly enhanced versions of
|
||
programs that display system status information, implementations of
|
||
various traditional tools described in the IEEE Std1003.2 standard,
|
||
and many others.
|
||
.PP
|
||
We have been tracking the IEEE Std1003.2 shell and utility work
|
||
and have included prototypes of many of the proposed utilities.
|
||
Most of the traditional utilities have been replaced
|
||
with implementations conformant to the POSIX standards.
|
||
Almost the entire manual suite has been rewritten to
|
||
reflect the POSIX defined interfaces.
|
||
In rewriting this software, we have generally
|
||
been rewarded with significant performance improvements.
|
||
Most of the libraries and header files have been converted
|
||
to be compliant with ANSI C.
|
||
The system libraries and utilities all compile
|
||
with either ANSI or traditional C.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The Kerberos (version 4) authentication software has been
|
||
integrated into much of the system (including NFS) to provide
|
||
the first real network authentication on BSD.
|
||
.PP
|
||
A new implementation of the \fIex/vi\fP text editors is available
|
||
in this release.
|
||
It is intended as a bug-for-bug compatible version of the editors.
|
||
It also has a few new features: 8-bit clean data, lines and files
|
||
limited only by memory and disk space, split screens, tags stacks
|
||
and left-right scrolling among them.
|
||
\fINex/nvi\fP
|
||
is not yet production quality; future versions of this software may
|
||
be retrieved by anonymous ftp from ftp.cs.berkeley.edu, in the
|
||
directory ucb/4bsd.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The \fIfind\fP
|
||
utility has two new options that are important to be aware of if you
|
||
intend to use NFS.
|
||
The ``fstype'' and ``prune'' options can be used together to prevent
|
||
find from crossing NFS mount points.
|
||
.NH 2
|
||
Additions and changes to the libraries
|
||
.PP
|
||
The \fIcurses\fP
|
||
library has been largely rewritten.
|
||
Important additional features include support
|
||
for scrolling and \fItermios\fP.
|
||
.PP
|
||
An application front-end editing library, named libedit, has been
|
||
added to the system.
|
||
.PP
|
||
A superset implementation of the SunOS kernel memory interface library,
|
||
\fIlibkvm\fP, has been integrated into the system.
|
||
.PP
|
||
Nearly the entire C-library has been rewritten.
|
||
Some highlights of the changes to the 4.4BSD C-library:
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The newly added \fIfts\fP
|
||
functions will do either physical or logical traversal of
|
||
a file hierarchy as well as handle essentially infinite depth
|
||
filesystems and filesystems with cycles.
|
||
All the utilities in 4.4BSD that traverse file hierarchies
|
||
have been converted to use \fIfts\fP.
|
||
The conversion has always resulted in a significant performance
|
||
gain, often of four or five to one in system time.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The newly added \fIdbopen\fP
|
||
functions are intended to be a family of database access methods.
|
||
Currently, they consist of \fIhash\fP,
|
||
an extensible, dynamic hashing scheme,
|
||
\fIbtree\fP, a sorted, balanced tree structure (B+tree's), and
|
||
\fIrecno\fP, a flat-file interface for fixed or variable length records
|
||
referenced by logical record number.
|
||
Each of the access methods stores associated key/data pairs and
|
||
uses the same record oriented interface for access.
|
||
Future versions of this software may be retrieved by anonymous ftp
|
||
from ftp.cs.berkeley.edu, in the directory ucb/4bsd.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The \fIqsort\fP
|
||
function has been rewritten for additional performance.
|
||
In addition, three new types of sorting functions,
|
||
\fIheapsort\fP, \fImergesort\fP, and \fIradixsort\fP
|
||
have been added to the system.
|
||
The \fImergesort\fP
|
||
function is optimized for data with pre-existing order,
|
||
in which case it usually significantly outperforms \fIqsort\fP.
|
||
The \fIradixsort\fP
|
||
functions are variants of most-significant-byte radix sorting.
|
||
They take time linear to the number of bytes to be
|
||
sorted, usually significantly outperforming \fIqsort\fP
|
||
on data that can be sorted in this fashion.
|
||
An implementation of the POSIX 1003.2 standard \fIsort\fP
|
||
based on \fIradixsort\fP is included in 4.4BSD.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The floating point support in the C-library has been replaced
|
||
and is now accurate.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The C functions specified by both ANSI C, POSIX 1003.1 and
|
||
1003.2 are now part of the C-library.
|
||
This includes support for file name matching, shell globbing
|
||
and both basic and extended regular expressions.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
ANSI C multibyte and wide character support has been integrated.
|
||
The rune functionality from the Bell Labs' Plan 9 system is provided
|
||
as well.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The \fItermcap\fP
|
||
functions have been generalized and replaced with a general
|
||
purpose interface named \fIgetcap\fP.
|
||
.IP \(bu
|
||
The \fIstdio\fP
|
||
routines have been replaced, and are usually much faster.
|
||
In addition, the \fIfunopen\fP
|
||
interface permits applications to provide their own I/O stream
|
||
function support.
|
||
.NH 1
|
||
Acknowledgements
|
||
.PP
|
||
We were greatly assisted by the past employees of the Computer Systems
|
||
Research Group: Mike Karels, Keith Sklower, and Marc Tietelbaum.
|
||
Our distribution coordinator, Pauline Schwartz, has reliably managed
|
||
the finances and the mechanics of shipping distributions for
|
||
nearly the entire fourteen years of the group's existence.
|
||
Without the help of lawyers Mary MacDonald, Joel Linzner,
|
||
and Carla Shapiro, the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution would never
|
||
have seen the light of day.
|
||
Much help was provided by Chris Demetriou in getting bug fixes
|
||
from NetBSD integrated back into the 4.4BSD-Lite distribution.
|
||
.PP
|
||
The vast majority of the 4.4BSD distribution comes from the numerous
|
||
people in the UNIX community that provided their time and energy in
|
||
creating the software contained in this release.
|
||
We dedicate this distribution to them.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
.nf
|
||
M. K. McKusick
|
||
K. Bostic
|
||
.fi
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 3
|
||
.nr PS 9
|
||
.nr VS 10
|
||
.LP
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the 4.3 Berkeley distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.LP
|
||
This update to the 4.2 distribution of August 1983 provides
|
||
substantially improved performance, reliability, and security,
|
||
the addition of Xerox Network System (NS) to the set of networking domains,
|
||
and partial support for the VAX 8600 and MICROVAXII.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We were greatly assisted by the DEC UNIX Engineering group who
|
||
provided two full time employees, Miriam Amos and Kevin Dunlap,
|
||
to work at Berkeley. They were responsible for developing and
|
||
debugging the distributed domain based name server
|
||
and integrating it into the mail system.
|
||
Mt Xinu provided the bug list distribution service as well as
|
||
donating their MICROVAXII port to 4.3BSD.
|
||
Drivers for the MICROVAXII were done by Rick Macklem
|
||
at the University of Guelph.
|
||
Sam Leffler provided valuable assistance and advice with many projects.
|
||
Keith Sklower coordinated with William Nesheim and J. Q. Johnson at Cornell,
|
||
and Chris Torek and James O'Toole at the University of Maryland
|
||
to do the Xerox Network Systems implementation.
|
||
Robert Elz at the University of Melbourne contributed greatly
|
||
to the performance work in the kernel.
|
||
Donn Seeley and Jay Lepreau at the University of Utah
|
||
relentlessly dealt with a myriad of details;
|
||
Donn completed the unfinished performance work on Fortran 77
|
||
and fixed numerous C compiler bugs.
|
||
Ralph Campbell handled innumerable questions and problem reports
|
||
and had time left to write rdist.
|
||
George Goble was invaluable in shaking out the bugs on his
|
||
production systems long before we were confident enough to
|
||
inflict it on our users.
|
||
Bill Shannon at Sun Microsystems has been helpful in
|
||
providing us with bug fixes and improvements.
|
||
Tom Ferrin, in his capacity as Board Member of Usenix Association,
|
||
handled the logistics of large-scale reproduction
|
||
of the 4.2BSD and 4.3BSD manuals.
|
||
Mark Seiden helped with the typesetting and indexing of the 4.3BSD manuals.
|
||
Special mention goes to Bob Henry for keeping ucbvax running
|
||
in spite of new and improved software and
|
||
an ever increasing mail, news, and uucp load.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Numerous others contributed their time and energy in creating
|
||
the user contributed software for the release.
|
||
As always, we are grateful to the UNIX user community for
|
||
encouragement and support.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Once again, the financial support of the Defense Advanced Research
|
||
Projects Agency is gratefully acknowledged.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
.nf
|
||
M. K. McKusick
|
||
M. J. Karels
|
||
J. M. Bloom
|
||
.fi
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 2i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the 4.2 Berkeley distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
This update to the 4.1 distribution of June 1981 provides support
|
||
for the VAX 11/730, full networking and interprocess communication
|
||
support, an entirely new file system, and many other new features.
|
||
It is certainly the most ambitious release of software ever prepared
|
||
here and represents many man-years of work.
|
||
Bill Shannon (both at DEC and at Sun Microsystems)
|
||
and Robert Elz of the University
|
||
of Melbourne contributed greatly to this distribution
|
||
through new device drivers and painful debugging episodes.
|
||
Rob Gurwitz of BBN wrote the initial version of the code upon
|
||
which the current networking support is based.
|
||
Eric Allman of Britton-Lee donated countless hours to the mail system.
|
||
Bill Croft (both at SRI and Sun Microsystems) aided in the
|
||
debugging and development of the networking facilities.
|
||
Dennis Ritchie of Bell Laboratories also
|
||
contributed greatly to this distribution, providing
|
||
valuable advise and guidance. Helge Skrivervik
|
||
worked on the device drivers which enabled
|
||
the distribution to be delivered with a TU58
|
||
console cassette and RX01 console flopppy disk, and
|
||
rewrote major portions of the standalone i/o system
|
||
to support formatting of non-DEC peripherals.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Numerous others contributed their time and energy in organizing
|
||
the user software for release, while many groups of people on
|
||
campus suffered patiently through the low spots of development.
|
||
As always, we are grateful to the UNIX user community for
|
||
encouragement and support.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Once again, the financial support of the Defense Advanced Research
|
||
Projects Agency is gratefully acknowledged.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
.nf
|
||
S. J. Leffler
|
||
W. N. Joy
|
||
M. K. McKusick
|
||
.fi
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the 4.1 Berkeley distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
This update to the fourth distribution of November 1980 provides
|
||
support for the VAX 11/750 and for the full interconnect architecture
|
||
of the VAX 11/780. Robert Elz of the University of Melbourne contributed
|
||
greatly to this distribution especially in the boot-time system
|
||
configuration code; Bill Shannon of DEC supplied us with the
|
||
implementation of DEC standard bad block handling. The research
|
||
group at Bell Laboratories and DEC Merrimack provided us with access
|
||
to 11/750's in order to debug its support.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Other individuals too numerous to mention provided us with bug reports,
|
||
fixes and other enhancements which are reflected in the system. We
|
||
are grateful to the UNIX user community for encouragement and
|
||
support.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The financial support of the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
|
||
in support of this work is gratefully acknowledged.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
.nf
|
||
W. N. Joy
|
||
R. S. Fabry
|
||
K. Sklower
|
||
.fi
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the Fourth Berkeley distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
This manual reflects the Berkeley system mid-October, 1980.
|
||
A large amount of tuning has been done in the system since the last release;
|
||
we hope this provides as noticeable an improvement for you as it did for us.
|
||
This release finds the system in transition; a number of facilities
|
||
have been added in experimental versions (job control, resource limits)
|
||
and the implementation of others is imminent (shared-segments, higher
|
||
performance from the file system, etc.).
|
||
Applications which use facilities that are in transition should be aware
|
||
that some of the system calls and library routines will change
|
||
in the near future. We have tried to be conscientious and make it
|
||
very clear where this is likely.
|
||
.LP
|
||
A new group has been formed
|
||
at Berkeley, to assume responsibility for the future
|
||
development and support of a version of UNIX on the VAX.
|
||
The group has received funding from the
|
||
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)
|
||
to supply a standard version of the system to DARPA contractors.
|
||
The same version of the system will be made available to other licensees
|
||
of UNIX on the VAX for a duplication charge.
|
||
We gratefully acknowledge
|
||
the support of this contract.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We wish to acknowledge the contribution of a number of individuals to
|
||
the system.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We would especially like to thank
|
||
Jim Kulp of IIASA,
|
||
Laxenburg Austria and his colleagues,
|
||
who first put job control facilities into UNIX;
|
||
Eric Allman, Robert Henry, Peter Kessler and Kirk McKusick, who
|
||
contributed major new pieces of software;
|
||
Mark Horton, who contributed to the improvement of facilities and
|
||
substantially improved the quality of our bit-mapped fonts,
|
||
our hardware support staff:
|
||
Bob Kridle,
|
||
Anita Hirsch,
|
||
Len Edmondson
|
||
and
|
||
Fred Archibald,
|
||
who helped us to debug a number of new peripherals;
|
||
Ken Arnold who did much of the leg-work in getting this version of the
|
||
manual prepared, and did the final editing of sections 2-6,
|
||
some special individuals within Bell Laboratories:
|
||
Greg Chesson,
|
||
Stuart Feldman,
|
||
Dick Haight,
|
||
Howard Katseff,
|
||
Brian Kernighan,
|
||
Tom London,
|
||
John Reiser,
|
||
Dennis Ritchie,
|
||
Ken Thompson,
|
||
and
|
||
Peter Weinberger
|
||
who helped out by answering questions;
|
||
our excellent local DEC field service people,
|
||
Kevin Althaus and Frank Chargois
|
||
who kept our machine running virtually all the time, and fixed it quickly
|
||
when things broke;
|
||
and,
|
||
Mike Accetta of Carnegie-Mellon University,
|
||
Robert Elz of the University of Melbourne,
|
||
George Goble of Purdue University,
|
||
and
|
||
David Kashtan of the Stanford Research Institute
|
||
for their technical advice and support.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Special thanks to Bill Munson of DEC who helped by augmenting
|
||
our computing facility
|
||
and to Eric Allman for carefully proofreading the
|
||
``last'' draft of the manual and finding the bugs which we knew were
|
||
there but couldn't see.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We dedicate this to the memory of David Sakrison, late chairman of our
|
||
department, who gave his support to the establishment of our VAX
|
||
computing facility, and to our department as a whole.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
.nf
|
||
W. N. Joy
|
||
\v'-3p'\h'2p'\*:\v'3p'\h'-2p'O. Babao\*~glu
|
||
R. S. Fabry
|
||
K. Sklower
|
||
.fi
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the Third Berkeley distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
This manual reflects the state of the Berkeley system, December 1979.
|
||
We would like to thank all the people at Berkeley who have contributed to
|
||
the system, and particularly thank
|
||
Prof. Richard Fateman for creating and administrating a hospitable environment,
|
||
Mark Horton who helped prepare this manual, and
|
||
Eric Allman, Bob Kridle, Juan Porcar
|
||
and Richard Tuck for their contributions to the kernel.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The cooperation of Bell Laboratories in providing us with an early version of
|
||
\s-2UNIX\s0/32V is greatly appreciated. We would especially like to thank
|
||
Dr. Charles Roberts of Bell Laboratories for helping us obtain this release,
|
||
and acknowledge
|
||
T. B. London,
|
||
J. F. Reiser,
|
||
K. Thompson,
|
||
D. M. Ritchie,
|
||
G. Chesson and
|
||
H. P. Katseff
|
||
for their advice and support.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
W. N. Joy
|
||
.br
|
||
\v'-3p'\h'2p'\*:\v'3p'\h'-2p'O. Babao\*~glu
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the UNIX/32V distribution\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
The
|
||
.UX
|
||
operating system for the VAX*-11
|
||
.FS
|
||
*VAX and PDP are Trademarks of Digital Equipment Corporation.
|
||
.FE
|
||
provides substantially the same facilities as the
|
||
\s-2UNIX\s0
|
||
system for the PDP*-11.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We acknowledge the work of many who came before us, and particularly thank
|
||
G. K. Swanson, W. M. Cardoza, D. K. Sharma, and J. F. Jarvis for assistance
|
||
with the implementation for the VAX-11/780.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
T. B. London
|
||
.br
|
||
J. F. Reiser
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.sp 2
|
||
.ne 1i
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fIPreface to the Seventh Edition\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.LP
|
||
Although this Seventh Edition no longer bears their byline,
|
||
Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie remain the fathers
|
||
and preceptors of the
|
||
\s-2UNIX\s0
|
||
time-sharing system.
|
||
Many of the improvements here described bear their mark.
|
||
Among many, many other people who have contributed to
|
||
the further flowering of
|
||
\s-2UNIX\s0,
|
||
we wish especially to
|
||
acknowledge the contributions of
|
||
A. V. Aho,
|
||
S. R. Bourne,
|
||
L. L. Cherry,
|
||
G. L. Chesson,
|
||
S. I. Feldman,
|
||
C. B. Haley,
|
||
R. C. Haight,
|
||
S. C. Johnson,
|
||
M. E. Lesk,
|
||
T. L. Lyon,
|
||
L. E. McMahon,
|
||
R. Morris,
|
||
R. Muha,
|
||
D. A. Nowitz,
|
||
L. Wehr,
|
||
and
|
||
P. J. Weinberger.
|
||
We appreciate also
|
||
the effective advice and criticism of
|
||
T. A. Dolotta,
|
||
A. G. Fraser,
|
||
J. F. Maranzano,
|
||
and
|
||
J. R. Mashey;
|
||
and we remember the important work of
|
||
the late Joseph F. Ossanna.
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.in 4i
|
||
B. W. Kernighan
|
||
.br
|
||
M. D. McIlroy
|
||
.in 0
|
||
.if o .bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.bp
|
||
.de IR
|
||
\fI\\$1\^\fR\\$2
|
||
..
|
||
.de RI
|
||
\fR\\$1\fI\\$2\^\fR\\$3
|
||
..
|
||
.ce
|
||
\fB\s+4INTRODUCTION\s-4\fP
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.nr PS 10
|
||
.nr VS 12
|
||
.LP
|
||
The documentation for 4.4BSD is in a format similar
|
||
to the one used for the 4.2BSD and 4.3BSD manuals.
|
||
It is divided into three sets; each set consists of one or more volumes.
|
||
The abbreviations for the volume names are listed in square brackets;
|
||
the abbreviations for the manual sections are listed in parenthesis.
|
||
.DS
|
||
I. User's Documents
|
||
User's Reference Manual [URM]
|
||
Commands (1)
|
||
Games (6)
|
||
Macro packages and language conventions (7)
|
||
User's Supplementary Documents [USD]
|
||
Getting Started
|
||
Basic Utilities
|
||
Communicating with the World
|
||
Text Editing
|
||
Document Preparation
|
||
Amusements
|
||
|
||
II. Programmer's Documents
|
||
Programmer's Reference Manual [PRM]
|
||
System calls (2)
|
||
Subroutines (3)
|
||
Special files (4)
|
||
File formats and conventions (5)
|
||
Programmer's Supplementary Documents [PSD]
|
||
Documents of Historic Interest
|
||
Languages in common use
|
||
Programming Tools
|
||
Programming Libraries
|
||
General Reference
|
||
|
||
III. System Manager's Manual [SMM]
|
||
Maintenance commands (8)
|
||
System Installation and Administration
|
||
.DE
|
||
.LP
|
||
References to individual documents are given as ``volume:document'',
|
||
thus USD:1 refers to the first document in the ``User's Supplementary
|
||
Documents''.
|
||
References to manual pages are given as ``\fIname\fP(section)'' thus
|
||
.IR sh (1)
|
||
refers to the shell manual entry in section 1.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The manual pages give descriptions of the features of the
|
||
4.4BSD system, as developed at the University of California at Berkeley.
|
||
They do not attempt to provide perspective or tutorial information about the
|
||
4.4BSD operating system, its facilities, or its implementation.
|
||
Various documents on those topics are contained in the
|
||
``\s-1UNIX\s+1 User's Supplementary Documents'' (USD), the
|
||
``\s-1UNIX\s+1 Programmer's Supplementary Documents'' (PSD),
|
||
and ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 System Manager's Manual'' (SMM).
|
||
In particular, for an overview see ``The \s-1UNIX\s+1 Time-Sharing System'' (PSD:1)
|
||
by Ritchie and Thompson; for a tutorial see
|
||
``\s8\s-1UNIX\s+1\s10 for Beginners'' (USD:1) by Kernighan,
|
||
and for an guide to the new features of this latest version, see
|
||
``Berkeley Software Architecture Manual (4.4 Edition)'' (PSD:5).
|
||
.LP
|
||
Within the area it surveys, this volume attempts to be timely, complete
|
||
and concise. Where the latter two objectives conflict,
|
||
the obvious is often left unsaid in favor of brevity.
|
||
It is intended that each program be described as it is, not as it should be.
|
||
Inevitably, this means that various sections will soon be out of date.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Commands are programs intended to be invoked directly by
|
||
the user, in contrast to subroutines, that are
|
||
intended to be called by the user's programs.
|
||
User commands are described in URM section 1.
|
||
Commands generally reside in directory
|
||
.I /bin
|
||
(for
|
||
.IR bin \|ary
|
||
programs).
|
||
Some programs also reside in
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|bin,
|
||
.R
|
||
to save space in
|
||
.I /\|bin.
|
||
.R
|
||
These directories are searched automatically by the command interpreters.
|
||
Additional directories that may be of interest include
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|contrib/\|bin,
|
||
.R
|
||
which has contributed software
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|old/\|bin,
|
||
.R
|
||
which has old but sometimes still useful software and
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|local/\|bin,
|
||
.R
|
||
which contains software local to your site.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Games have been relegated to URM section 6 and
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|games,
|
||
.R
|
||
to keep them from contaminating
|
||
the more staid information of URM section 1.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Miscellaneous collection of information necessary for
|
||
writing in various specialized languages such as character codes,
|
||
macro packages for typesetting, etc is contained in URM section 7.
|
||
.LP
|
||
System calls are entries into the BSD kernel.
|
||
The system call interface is identical to a C language
|
||
procedure call; the equivalent C procedures are described in PRM section 2.
|
||
.LP
|
||
An assortment of subroutines is available;
|
||
they are described in PRM section 3.
|
||
The primary libraries in which they are kept are described in
|
||
.IR intro (3).
|
||
The functions are described in terms of C.
|
||
.LP
|
||
PRM section 4 discusses the characteristics of
|
||
each system ``file'' that refers to an I/O device.
|
||
The names in this section refer to the HP300 device names for the hardware,
|
||
instead of the names of the special files themselves.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The file formats and conventions (PRM section 5)
|
||
documents the structure of particular kinds of files;
|
||
for example, the form of the output of the loader and
|
||
assembler is given. Excluded are files used by only one command,
|
||
for example the assembler's intermediate files.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Commands and procedures intended for use primarily by the
|
||
system administrator are described in SMM section 8.
|
||
The files described here are almost all kept in the directory
|
||
.I /\|etc.
|
||
The system administration binaries reside in
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|sbin,
|
||
.R
|
||
and
|
||
.I
|
||
/\|usr/\|sbin.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Each section consists of independent entries of a page or so each.
|
||
The name of the entry is in the upper corners of its pages,
|
||
together with the section number.
|
||
Entries within each section are alphabetized.
|
||
The page numbers of each entry start at 1;
|
||
it is infeasible to number consecutively the pages of
|
||
a document like this that is republished in many variant forms.
|
||
.LP
|
||
All entries are based on a common format;
|
||
not all subsections always appear.
|
||
.RS
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.I name
|
||
subsection lists the exact names of the commands and subroutines
|
||
covered under the entry and gives a short description of their purpose.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.IR synopsis ""
|
||
summarizes the use of the program being described.
|
||
A few conventions are used, particularly in the Commands subsection:
|
||
.LP
|
||
.RS
|
||
.B Boldface
|
||
words are considered literals, and are typed just as they appear.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Square brackets [ ] around an argument show that the argument is optional.
|
||
When an argument is given as ``name'', it always refers to a file name.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Ellipses ``.\|.\|.'' are used to show that the previous argument-prototype
|
||
may be repeated.
|
||
.LP
|
||
A final convention is used by the commands themselves.
|
||
An argument beginning with a minus sign ``\-'' usually means that it is an
|
||
option-specifying argument, even if it appears in a position where
|
||
a file name could appear. Therefore, it is unwise to have files whose
|
||
names begin with ``\-''.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.RE
|
||
The
|
||
.IR description ""
|
||
subsection discusses in detail the subject at hand.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.IR files ""
|
||
subsection gives the names of files that are built into the program.
|
||
.LP
|
||
A
|
||
.I
|
||
see also
|
||
.R
|
||
subsection gives pointers to related information.
|
||
.LP
|
||
A
|
||
.I diagnostics
|
||
subsection discusses the diagnostic indications that may be produced.
|
||
Messages that are intended to be self-explanatory are not listed.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.IR bugs ""
|
||
subsection gives known bugs and sometimes deficiencies.
|
||
Occasionally the suggested fix is also described.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.RE
|
||
At the beginning of URM is a table of contents,
|
||
organized by section and alphabetically within each section.
|
||
There is also a permuted index derived from the table of contents.
|
||
Within each index entry, the title of the writeup to which
|
||
it refers is followed by the appropriate section number in parentheses.
|
||
This fact is important because there is considerable
|
||
name duplication among the sections, arising principally from commands that
|
||
exist only to exercise a particular system call.
|
||
Finally, there is a list of documents on the inside back cover of each volume.
|
||
.SH
|
||
HOW TO GET STARTED
|
||
.LP
|
||
This section sketches the basic information you need to get started on \s-1UNIX\s+1;
|
||
how to log in and log out, how to communicate through your terminal,
|
||
and how to run a program.
|
||
See ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 for Beginners'' in (USD:1) for a
|
||
more complete introduction to the system.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Logging in.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
Almost any ASCII terminal capable of
|
||
full duplex operation and generating
|
||
the entire character set can be used.
|
||
You must have a valid user name,
|
||
which may be obtained from the system administration.
|
||
If you will be accessing \s-1UNIX\s+1 remotely, you will also
|
||
need to obtain the telephone number for the system that you will be using.
|
||
.LP
|
||
After a data connection is established,
|
||
the login procedure depends on what type of terminal you are using
|
||
and local system conventions.
|
||
If your terminal is directly connected to the computer,
|
||
it generally runs at 9600 or 19200 baud.
|
||
If you are using a modem running over a phone line,
|
||
the terminal must be set at the speed appropriate for the modem you are using,
|
||
typically 1200, 2400, or 9600 baud.
|
||
The half/full duplex switch should always be set at full-duplex.
|
||
(This switch will often have to be changed
|
||
since many other systems require half-duplex).
|
||
.LP
|
||
When a connection is established, the system types ``login:'';
|
||
you type your user name, followed by the ``return'' key.
|
||
If you have a password, the system asks for it
|
||
and suppresses echo to the terminal so the password will not appear.
|
||
After you have logged in, the ``return'', ``new line'', or ``linefeed'' keys
|
||
will give exactly the same results.
|
||
A message-of-the-day usually greets you before your first prompt.
|
||
.LP
|
||
If the system types out a few garbage characters
|
||
after you have established a data connection
|
||
(the ``login:'' message at the wrong speed),
|
||
depress the ``break'' (or ``interrupt'') key.
|
||
This is a speed-independent signal to \s-1UNIX\s+1
|
||
that a different speed terminal is in use.
|
||
The system then will type ``login:,'' this time at another speed.
|
||
Continue depressing the break key until ``login:'' appears clearly,
|
||
then respond with your user name.
|
||
.LP
|
||
For all these terminals, it is important
|
||
that you type your name in lower-case if possible; if you type
|
||
upper-case letters,
|
||
\s-1UNIX\s+1 will assume that your terminal cannot generate lower-case
|
||
letters and will translate all subsequent lower-case letters to upper case.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The evidence that you have successfully logged in is that a shell program
|
||
will type a prompt (``$'' or ``%'') to you.
|
||
(The shells are described below under ``How to run a program.'')
|
||
.LP
|
||
For more information, consult
|
||
.IR tset (1),
|
||
and
|
||
.IR stty (1),
|
||
which tell how to adjust terminal behavior;
|
||
.IR getty (8)
|
||
discusses the login sequence in more detail, and
|
||
.IR tty (4)
|
||
discusses terminal I/O.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Logging out.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
There are three ways to log out:
|
||
.IP
|
||
By typing ``logout'' or an end-of-file
|
||
indication (EOT character, control-D) to the shell.
|
||
The shell will terminate and the ``login:'' message will appear again.
|
||
.IP
|
||
You can log in directly as another user by giving a
|
||
.IR login (1)
|
||
command.
|
||
.IP
|
||
If worse comes to worse,
|
||
you can simply hang up the phone; but beware \- some machines may
|
||
lack the necessary hardware to detect that the phone has been hung up.
|
||
Ask your system administrator if this is a problem on your machine.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
How to communicate through your terminal.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
When you type characters, a gnome deep in the system
|
||
gathers your characters and saves them in a secret place.
|
||
The characters will not be given to a program
|
||
until you type a return (or newline), as described above in
|
||
.I
|
||
Logging in.
|
||
.R
|
||
.LP
|
||
\s-1UNIX\s+1 terminal I/O is full-duplex.
|
||
It has full read-ahead, which means that you can type at any time,
|
||
even while a program is typing at you.
|
||
Of course, if you type during output, the printed output will
|
||
have the input characters interspersed.
|
||
However, whatever you type will be saved up and interpreted in correct sequence.
|
||
There is a limit to the amount of read-ahead,
|
||
but it is generous and not likely to be exceeded unless
|
||
the system is in trouble.
|
||
When the read-ahead limit is exceeded, the system
|
||
throws away all the saved characters (or beeps, if your prompt was a ``%'').
|
||
.LP
|
||
The ^U (control-U) character in typed input kills all the
|
||
preceding characters in the line,
|
||
so typing mistakes can be repaired on a single line.
|
||
Also, the delete character (DEL) or sometimes the
|
||
backspace character (control-H) erases the last character typed.
|
||
.IR Tset (1)
|
||
or
|
||
.IR stty (1)
|
||
can be used to change these defaults.
|
||
Successive uses of delete (or backspace) erases characters back to, but
|
||
not beyond, the beginning of the line.
|
||
DEL and ^U (control-U) can be transmitted to a program by preceding them with
|
||
^V (control-V).
|
||
(So, to erase ^V (control-V), you need two deletes or backspaces).
|
||
.LP
|
||
An
|
||
.I
|
||
interrupt signal
|
||
.R
|
||
is sent to a program by typing ^C (control-C) or the ``break'' key
|
||
which is not passed to programs.
|
||
This signal generally causes whatever program you are running to terminate.
|
||
It is typically used to stop a long printout that you do not want.
|
||
However, programs can arrange either to ignore this signal altogether,
|
||
or to be notified when it happens (instead of being terminated).
|
||
The editor, for example, catches interrupts and stops what it is doing,
|
||
instead of terminating, so that an interrupt can
|
||
be used to halt an editor printout without losing the file being edited.
|
||
The interrupt character can also be changed with
|
||
.IR tset (1)
|
||
or
|
||
.IR stty (1).
|
||
.LP
|
||
It is also possible to suspend output temporarily using ^S (control-S)
|
||
and later resume output with ^Q (control-Q).
|
||
Output can be thrown away without interrupting
|
||
the program by typing ^O (control-O); see
|
||
.IR tty (4).
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.IR quit ""
|
||
signal is generated by typing the \s8ASCII\s10 FS character.
|
||
(FS appears many places on different terminals, most commonly
|
||
as control-\e or control-\^|\^.)
|
||
It not only causes a running program to terminate
|
||
but also generates a file with the core image of the terminated process.
|
||
Quit is useful for debugging.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Besides adapting to the speed of the terminal,
|
||
\s-1UNIX\s+1 tries to be intelligent about whether
|
||
you have a terminal with the newline function
|
||
or whether it must be simulated with carriage-return and line-feed.
|
||
In the latter case, all input carriage returns
|
||
are turned to newline characters (the standard line delimiter)
|
||
and both a carriage return and a line feed are echoed to the terminal.
|
||
If you get into the wrong mode, the
|
||
.IR reset (1)
|
||
command will rescue you.
|
||
If the terminal does not appear to be echoing anything that you type,
|
||
it may be stuck in ``no-echo'' or ``raw'' mode.
|
||
Try typing ``(control-J)reset(control-J)'' to recover.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Tab characters are used freely in \s-1UNIX\s+1 source programs.
|
||
If your terminal does not have the tab function,
|
||
you can arrange to have them turned into spaces
|
||
during output, and echoed as spaces during input.
|
||
The system assumes that tabs are set every eight columns.
|
||
Again, the
|
||
.IR tset (1)
|
||
or
|
||
.IR stty (1)
|
||
command can be used to change these defaults.
|
||
.IR Tset (1)
|
||
can be used to set the tab stops automatically when necessary.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
How to run a program; the shells.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
When you have successfully logged in, a program
|
||
called a shell is listening to your terminal.
|
||
The shell reads typed-in lines, splits them up
|
||
into a command name and arguments, and executes the command.
|
||
A command is simply an executable program.
|
||
The shell looks in several system directories to find the command.
|
||
You can also place commands in your own directory and
|
||
have the shell find them there.
|
||
There is nothing special about system-provided
|
||
commands except that they are kept in a directory where the shell can find them.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The command name is always the first word on an input line;
|
||
it and its arguments are separated from one another by spaces.
|
||
.LP
|
||
When a program terminates, the shell will ordinarily regain control and type
|
||
a prompt at you to show that it is ready for another command.
|
||
.LP
|
||
The shells have many other capabilities, that are described in detail in
|
||
sections
|
||
.IR sh (1)
|
||
and
|
||
.IR csh (1).
|
||
If the shell prompts you with ``$'', then it is an instance of
|
||
.IR sh (1),
|
||
the original \s-1UNIX\s+1 shell.
|
||
If it prompts with ``%'' then it is an instance of
|
||
.IR csh (1),
|
||
a shell written at Berkeley.
|
||
The shells are different for all but the most simple terminal usage.
|
||
Most users at Berkeley choose
|
||
.IR csh (1)
|
||
because of the
|
||
.I history
|
||
mechanism and the
|
||
.I alias
|
||
feature, that greatly enhance its power when used interactively.
|
||
.I Csh
|
||
also supports the job-control facilities;
|
||
see
|
||
.IR csh (1)
|
||
or the Csh introduction in USD:4 for details.
|
||
.LP
|
||
You can change from one shell to the other by using the
|
||
.I chpass (1)
|
||
command, which takes effect at your next login.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
The current directory.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
\s-1UNIX\s+1 has a file system arranged as a hierarchy of directories.
|
||
When the system administrator gave you a user name,
|
||
they also created a directory for you (ordinarily
|
||
with the same name as your user name).
|
||
When you log in, any file name you type is by default in this directory.
|
||
Since you are the owner of this directory, you have
|
||
full permission to read, write, alter, or destroy its contents.
|
||
Permissions to have your will with other directories
|
||
and files will have been granted or denied to you by their owners.
|
||
As a matter of observed fact, few \s-1UNIX\s+1
|
||
users protect their files from perusal by other users.
|
||
.LP
|
||
To change the current directory (but not the set of permissions you
|
||
were endowed with at login) use
|
||
.IR cd (1).
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Path names.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
To refer to files not in the current directory, you must use a path name.
|
||
Full path names begin with ``/\|'', the name of the root directory of the
|
||
whole file system.
|
||
After the slash comes the name of each directory containing the next
|
||
sub-directory (followed by a ``/\|'') until finally the file name is reached.
|
||
For example,
|
||
.I
|
||
/\^var/\^tmp/\^filex
|
||
.R
|
||
refers to the file
|
||
.I
|
||
filex
|
||
.R
|
||
in the directory
|
||
.I
|
||
tmp; tmp
|
||
.R
|
||
is itself a subdirectory of
|
||
.I
|
||
var; var
|
||
.R
|
||
springs directly from the root directory.
|
||
.LP
|
||
If your current directory has subdirectories,
|
||
the path names of files therein begin with
|
||
the name of the subdirectory with no prefixed ``/\|''.
|
||
.LP
|
||
A path name may be used anywhere a file name is required.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Important commands that modify the contents of files are
|
||
.IR cp (1),
|
||
.IR mv (1),
|
||
and
|
||
.IR rm (1),
|
||
which respectively copy, move (i.e. rename) and remove files.
|
||
To find out the status of files or directories, use
|
||
.IR ls (1).
|
||
See
|
||
.IR mkdir (1)
|
||
for making directories and
|
||
.IR rmdir (1)
|
||
for destroying them.
|
||
.LP
|
||
For a fuller discussion of the file system, see
|
||
``A Fast File System for \s-1UNIX\s+1'' (SMM:5)
|
||
by McKusick, Joy, Leffler, and Fabry.
|
||
It may also be useful to glance through PRM section 2,
|
||
that discusses system calls, even if you do not intend
|
||
to deal with the system at that level.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Writing a program.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
To enter the text of a source program into a \s-1UNIX\s+1 file,
|
||
use the standard display editor
|
||
.IR vi (1)
|
||
or its \s-1WYSIWYG\s+1 counterparts
|
||
.IR jove (1)
|
||
and
|
||
.IR emacs (1).
|
||
(The old standard editor
|
||
.IR ed (1)
|
||
is also available.)
|
||
The principle language in \s-1UNIX\s+1 is provided by the C compiler
|
||
.IR cc (1).
|
||
User contributed software in the latest
|
||
release of the system supports the programming languages perl and C++.
|
||
After the program text has been entered through the editor
|
||
and written to a file, you can give the file
|
||
to the appropriate language processor as an argument.
|
||
The output of the language processor
|
||
will be left on a file in the current directory named ``a.out''.
|
||
If the output is precious, use
|
||
.IR mv (1)
|
||
to move it to a less exposed name after successful compilation.
|
||
.LP
|
||
When you have finally gone through this entire process
|
||
without provoking any diagnostics, the resulting program
|
||
can be run by giving its name to the shell
|
||
in response to the shell (``$'' or ``%'') prompt.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Your programs can receive arguments from the command line
|
||
just as system programs do,
|
||
see ``\s-1UNIX\s+1 Programming - Second Edition'' (PSD:4),
|
||
or for a more terse description
|
||
.IR execve (2).
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Text processing.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
Almost all text is entered through an editor such as
|
||
.IR vi (1),
|
||
.IR jove (1),
|
||
or
|
||
.IR emacs (1).
|
||
The commands most often used to write text on a terminal are:
|
||
.IR cat (1),
|
||
.IR more (1),
|
||
and
|
||
.IR nroff (1).
|
||
.LP
|
||
The
|
||
.IR cat (1)
|
||
command simply dumps \s8ASCII\s10 text
|
||
on the terminal, with no processing at all.
|
||
.IR More (1)
|
||
is useful for preventing the output of a command from
|
||
scrolling off the top of your screen.
|
||
It is also well suited to perusing files.
|
||
.IR Nroff (1)
|
||
is an elaborate text formatting program.
|
||
Used naked, it requires careful forethought, but for
|
||
ordinary documents it has been tamed; see
|
||
.IR me (7)
|
||
and
|
||
.IR ms (7).
|
||
.LP
|
||
.IR Groff (1)
|
||
converts documents to postscript for output to a
|
||
Laserwriter or Phototypesetter.
|
||
It is similar to
|
||
.IR nroff (1),
|
||
and often works from exactly the same source text.
|
||
It was used to produce this manual.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.IR Script (1)
|
||
lets you keep a record of your session in a file,
|
||
which can then be printed, mailed, etc.
|
||
It provides the advantages of a hard-copy terminal
|
||
even when using a display terminal.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Status inquiries.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
Various commands exist to provide you with useful information.
|
||
.IR w (1)
|
||
prints a list of users currently logged in, and what they are doing.
|
||
.IR date (1)
|
||
prints the current time and date.
|
||
.IR ls (1)
|
||
will list the files in your directory or give
|
||
summary information about particular files.
|
||
.LP
|
||
.I
|
||
Surprises.\ \
|
||
.R
|
||
Certain commands provide inter-user communication.
|
||
Even if you do not plan to use them, it would be
|
||
well to learn something about them, because someone else may aim them at you.
|
||
.LP
|
||
To communicate with another user currently logged in,
|
||
.IR write (1)
|
||
or
|
||
.IR talk (1)
|
||
is used;
|
||
.IR mail (1)
|
||
will leave a message whose presence will be announced
|
||
to another user when they next log in.
|
||
The write-ups in the manual also suggest how to respond to
|
||
the these commands if you are a target.
|
||
.LP
|
||
If you use
|
||
.IR csh (1)
|
||
the key ^Z (control-Z) will cause jobs to ``stop''.
|
||
If this happens before you learn about it,
|
||
you can simply continue by saying ``fg'' (for foreground) to bring
|
||
the job back.
|
||
.LP
|
||
We hope that you will come to enjoy using the BSD system.
|
||
Although it is very large and contains many commands,
|
||
you can become very productive using only a small subset of them.
|
||
As your needs expand to doing new tasks,
|
||
you will almost always find that the system has the facilities
|
||
that you need to accomplish them easily and quickly.
|
||
.LP
|
||
Most importantly, the source code to the BSD system
|
||
is cheaply available to anyone that wants it.
|
||
On many BSD systems, it can be found in the directory
|
||
.IR /\|usr/\|src .
|
||
You may simply want to find out how something works
|
||
or fix some important bug without waiting months for
|
||
your vendor to respond.
|
||
It is also particularly useful if you
|
||
want to grab another piece of code to bootstrap a new project.
|
||
Provided that you retain the copyrights and acknowledgements
|
||
at the top of each file, you are free to redistribute your
|
||
work for fun or profit.
|
||
Naturally, we hope that you will allow others to also redistribute
|
||
your code, though you are not required to do so unless you
|
||
use copyleft code (which is primarily found in the software
|
||
contributed from the Free Software Foundation and is
|
||
clearly identified).
|
||
.LP
|
||
Good luck and enjoy BSD.
|
||
.OH '''\s10- % -\s0'
|
||
.EH '\s10- % -\s0'''
|
||
.if o .bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.bp
|
||
.EF '\s9\\\\*(Dt''\\\\*(Ed\s0'
|
||
.OF '\s9\\\\*(Ed''\\\\*(Dt\s0'
|
||
.ce
|
||
\s+4\fBLIST \|OF \|MANUAL \|PAGES\fP\s-4
|
||
.nr x 0.5
|
||
.in +\nxi
|
||
.nf
|
||
.ta \n(.lu-\nxuR
|
||
.de xx
|
||
\\$1\f3 \a \fP\\$2
|
||
..
|
||
.de t
|
||
.sp 1v
|
||
.ne .5i
|
||
.cs 3
|
||
.ti -\\nxi
|
||
.ss 18
|
||
\f3\s9\\$2. \\$3\s0\fP
|
||
.ss 12
|
||
.if t .sp .5v
|
||
.cs 3 36
|
||
.ds Ed Section \\$2
|
||
.ds Dt \\$3
|
||
.so \\$1
|
||
..
|
||
.t toc1 1 "Commands and Application Programs"
|
||
.t toc2 2 "System Calls"
|
||
.t toc3 3 "C Library Subroutines"
|
||
.t toc4 4 "Special Files"
|
||
.t toc5 5 "File Formats"
|
||
.t toc6 6 "Games"
|
||
.t toc7 7 "Miscellaneous"
|
||
.t toc8 8 "System Maintenance"
|
||
.in -\nxi
|
||
.cs 3
|
||
.ta .5i 1i 1.5i 2i 2.5i 3i 3.5i 4i 4.5i 5i 5.5i 6i 6.5i
|
||
.if o .bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.bp
|
||
\&
|
||
.OH '\s9\fIPermuted Index\fP''- % -\s0'
|
||
.EH '\s9- % -''\fIPermuted Index\fP\s0'
|
||
.ds Ed 4.4BSD
|
||
.ds Dt June \|1993
|
||
.ce
|
||
\s+4\fBPERMUTED \|INDEX\fP\s-4
|
||
.sp 1
|
||
.nr PS 8
|
||
.nr VS 9
|
||
.LP
|
||
.\" backup from slotput 1, slot, 2
|
||
.tr ~
|
||
.nf
|
||
.cs 3 36
|
||
.de xx
|
||
.ds s1\"
|
||
.if \w\\$2 .ds s1 ~~\"
|
||
.ds s2 ~~~\"
|
||
.ds s3\"
|
||
.if \w\\$4 .ds s3 ~~\"
|
||
.ds s4 ~~\"
|
||
.ds s5 ~~\"
|
||
.ds y \\*(s4\f3\fP\\*(s5
|
||
.ta 6i-\w\\*(s5u
|
||
\h"3i-\w\\$1\\*(s1\\$2\\*(s2u"\\$1\\*(s1\\$2\\*(s2\\$3\\*(s3\\$4\\*y\\$5
|
||
..
|
||
.so ptxx
|
||
.cs 3
|
||
.ta .5i 1i 1.5i 2i 2.5i 3i 3.5i 4i 4.5i 5i 5.5i 6i 6.5i
|